The Nature of Motivation The psychological forces acting on an individual that determine: Direction—possible behaviors the individual could engage in Effort—how hard the individual will work Persistence—whether the individual will keep trying or give up This is one of the factors that explains why people behave the way they do in organizations. What are some other factors? © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Motivation (cont’d) Extrinsic Motivation Behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment. Examples? What motivate you? What motivates others you know? Intrinsic Motivation Behavior that is performed for its own sake. What motivates you? © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Expectancy Theory) Motivation will be highest when: Effort  Performance  Desired Outcomes © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Expectancy Theory, cont’d © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. Source: Figure 12.3

Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Five basic needs Lowest level of unmet need is the primary motivator © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self- actualization Realize one’s full potential Use abilities to the fullest Esteem Feel good about oneself Promotions and recognition Belongingness Social interaction, love Interpersonal relations, parties Safety Security, stability Job security, health insurance Physiological Food, water, shelter Basic pay level to buy items Needs Description Examples Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs are addressed. Highest-level needs Lowest-level needs © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. Table 12.1

Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories, cont’d) Alderfer’s ERG Theory Three needs categories Needs at more than one level can be the motivator at any time © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Adequate pay for necessities Alderfer’s ERG Theory After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised. Growth Self-development, creative work Continually improve skills Relatedness Interpersonal relations, feelings Good relations, accurate feedback Existence Food, water, clothing, and shelter Adequate pay for necessities Needs Description Examples Highest-level needs Lowest-level needs Source: © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. Table 12.2

Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories) Let’s stop for a minute … Why should a manager care about all these “needs theories”? © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories, cont’d) Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work. Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security. Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction. © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories, cont’d) McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power Need for Achievement A strong need to perform challenging tasks well and meet personal standards for excellence Need for Affiliation A concern for good interpersonal relations, being liked, and getting along Need for Power A desire to control or influence others © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Adam’s Equity Theory) Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in proportion to their work inputs. Equity: input/output ratios are equal How would you “restore” equity in … … underpayment … overpayment © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Goal Setting Theory) Focuses on identifying the types of goals that are effective in producing high levels of motivation and explaining why goals have these effects. Goals must be: Specific Difficult Include feedback © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Learning Theories) Theories that focus on increasing motivation and performance by linking outcomes to performance and the attainment of goals. Learning A relatively permanent change in person’s knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience. © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Theory) People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Extinction Punishment OB MOD © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Steps in Organizational Behavior Modification Figure 12.4 Source: Adapted from Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond by F. Luthans and R. Kreitner (Scott, Foresman, 1985). With permission of the authors. © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Learning Theories: Social Learning Theory) A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people’s thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people’s behavior. Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning) Learning that occurs when a learner is motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform and be rewarded. People are motivated to imitate models who are highly competent, expert, receive attractive reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable. © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.

Theories in Motivation (Where does pay fit in?) Pay as a Motivator???? Expectancy: pay is an instrumentality (and outcome), must be high for motivation to be high. Need Theory: pay is used to satisfy many needs. Equity Theory: pay is given in relation to inputs. Goal Setting Theory: pay is linked to attainment of goals. Learning Theory: outcomes (pay), is distributed upon performance of functional behaviors. © Copyright McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.