Chapter 9: The Voyage Through the Life Span

Learning Outcomes Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play. Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of children.

Learning Outcomes Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social and emotional development of adolescents. Explain the features of emerging adulthood. Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adults.

Prenatal Development LO1 Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play

Prenatal Development Germinal Stage Conception through implantation Zygote divides and becomes implanted in the uterine wall zygote – a fertilized ovum (egg cell) germinal stage – the first stage of prenatal development, during which the dividing mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterine wall amniotic sac – a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus

Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage Implantation until about 8th week Major organ systems are formed Growth occurs Head first Vital organs to extremities

A Human Fetus at Twelve Weeks Figure 9.1: A Human Fetus at Twelve Weeks – By the end of the first trimester, formation of all the major organ systems is complete. Fingers and toes are fully formed, and the sex of the fetus can be determined visually.

Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage Genetic code (XX or XY) causes sex organs to differentiate Y sex chromosome – testes form and produce androgens

Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. TRUE During the fourth week, a primitive heart begins to beat and pump blood—in an organism that is one-fifth of an inch long.

Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. TRUE! Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. TRUE During the fourth week, a primitive heart begins to beat and pump blood—in an organism that is one-fifth of an inch long.

Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage Embryo is suspended in amniotic sac Nutrients and wastes are exchanged with mother through placenta Embryo is connected to placenta by umbilical cord amniotic sac – a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus placenta – a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix umbilical cord – a tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste product are conducted

Prenatal Development Fetal Stage Beginning of third month until birth Characterized by maturation and gains in size

A Human Fetus at Four Months Figure 9.1: A Human Fetus at Four Months – At this midway point between conception and birth, the fetus is covered with fine, downy hair, called lanugo.

Childhood LO2 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of children.

Physical Development Reflexes Motor Development Simple, inborn responses elicited by specific stimuli Rooting and sucking, withdrawal, startle, grasping Motor Development Brain maturation and environmental factors reflex – a simple inborn response to a stimulus rooting – the turning of an infant’s head toward a touch, such as by the mother’s nipple

Motor Development Figure 9.2 Motor Development

Physical Development Perceptual Development Within days, infant can track moving light 3-month-old can discriminate most colors 2-month-olds prefer human face as visual stimuli Fixation time – measure of visual preference Perceive depth about time begin crawling Visual cliff experiments fixation time – the amount of time spent looking at a visual stimulus

Two-Month-Olds’ Preferences for Visual Stimuli Figure 9.3 Two-Month-Olds’ Preferences for Visual Stimuli.

Physical Development Perceptual Development Newborns hear normally; prefer mother’s voice Show no preference for father’s voice Newborns can discriminate distinct odors

Cognitive Development The way in which children mentally represent and think about the world Jean Piaget – Cognitive-development theory Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural theory Lawrence Kohlberg – Theory of moral development

Piaget’s Cognitive-Development Theory Schema “Mental structure” in organizing knowledge Assimilation Respond to new stimuli through existing habit Accommodation Create new ways of responding to objects schema – according to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information assimilation - according to Piaget, the inclusion of a new event into an existing schema accommodation – according to Piaget, the modification of schemas so that information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood

Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind” Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind” TRUE For most infants younger than 6 months, objects are not yet represented mentally.

Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind” TRUE! Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind” TRUE For most infants younger than 6 months, objects are not yet represented mentally.

Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory Sensorimotor Stage Coordination of sensory information and motor activity Object Permanence Before 6 months of age does not mentally represent objects sensorimotor stage – the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language object permanence – recognition that objects removed from sight still exist, as demonstrated in young children by continued pursuit

Object Permanence Figure 9.4: Object Permanence – To this infant, who is in the early part of the sensorimotor stage, out of sight is truly out of mind. Once a sheet of paper is placed between the infant and the toy animal, the infant loses all interest in it. The toy is apparently not yet mentally represented.

Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory Preoperational Stage Use words and symbols to represent objects and relationships among them Egocentrism Animism Artificialism Conservation Objective Responsibility preoperational stage – the second of Piaget’s stages, characterized by illogical use of words and symbols, spotty logic, and egocentrism egocentrism – according to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself conservation – according to Piaget, recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change objective responsibility – according to Piaget, the assignment of blame according to the amount of damage done rather than the motives of the actor Animism – The belief that inanimate objects move because of will or spirit Artificialism – The belief that natural objects have been created by human beings

Example of Preoperational Thought Table 9.1: Examples of Preoperational Thought

Conservation Figure 9.5: Conservation – (a) The boy in this illustration agreed that the amount of water in two identical containers is equal. (b) He then watched as water from one container was poured into a tall, thin container. (c) When asked whether the amounts of water in the two containers are now the same, he says no.

Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory Concrete Operational Stage Beginning of capacity for adult logic Decentration Reversibility Subjective Moral Judgment concrete operational stage – Piaget’s third stage, characterized by logical thought concerning tangible objects, conservation, and subjective morality decentration – simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible subjective moral judgment – according to Piaget, moral judgment that is based on the motives of the perpetrator

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory Piaget tended to underestimate children’s abilities Egocentrism and conservation appear to be more continuous than Piaget thought Developmental sequences do not vary

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Cognitive theory focused on influence of culture and children’s interactions with elders Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Scaffolding Children internalize explanations that encourage skill development zone of proximal development – Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled, frequently an adult who represents the culture in which the child develops. scaffolding – Vygotsky’s term for temporary cognitive structures or methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to function independently

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Use of “moral dilemma” story to explore reasoning of right and wrong Stage theory with a specific sequence

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Preconventional Level Base judgment on consequences of behavior Stage 1 – Obedience and punishment Stage 2 – Good behavior allows people to satisfy their needs preconventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are based largely on expectation of rewards or punishment

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Conventional Level Base judgment on conformity to conventional standards of right and wrong Stage 3 – Good-boy orientation Stage 4 – Judgments are based on rules that maintain social order conventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social conventions; a “law and order” approach to morality

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Postconventional Level Base judgment on need to maintain social order and personal conscience

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Research supports moral reasoning follows a sequence Postcoventional requires formal operational thinking Kohlberg underestimated the influence of social, cultural, and educational institutions and parents

Social and Emotional Development Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Eight stages that represent life crises Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Initiative versus Guilt Industry versus Inferiority These are the first four stages of Erikson’s theory representing the years of infancy through childhood

Attachment Emotional tie between one animal/person and another specific individual Mary Salter Ainsworth Behavior that defines attachment Attempts to maintain contact Anxiety when separated attachment – the enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another

Attachment Strange Situation Three Types of Attachment Method to assess infants’ response to separations and reunions with caregivers and a stranger Three Types of Attachment Secure attachment Avoidant attachment Ambivalent/resistant attachment

Phases of Attachment Initial-preattachment phase Initially show indiscriminate attachment Attachment-in-the-making phase Clear-cut-attachment phase Fear of strangers – 8 to 10 months

Theoretical Views of Attachment Behaviorists viewed attachment as learned behavior based on caregiver’s attention Harry F. Harlow Inborn need for contact comfort contact comfort – a hypothesized primary drive to seek physical comfort through contact with another

Attachment in Infant Monkeys Figure 9.6: Attachment in Infant Monkeys - Although this rhesus monkey infant is fed by the wire “mother,” it spends most of its time clinging to the soft, cuddly, terry cloth “mother.” It knows where to get a meal, but contact comfort is apparently more important than food in the development of attachment in infant monkeys (and infant humans).

Theoretical Views of Attachment Konrad Lorenz Ethologist – attachment is inborn Critical period Imprinting Ainsworth and Bowlby Attachment is instinctive in humans ethologist – a scientist who studies the characteristic behavior patterns of species of animals critical period – a period of time when an instinctive response can be elicited by a particular stimulus imprinting – a process occurring during a critical period in the development of an organism, in which that organism responds to a stimulus in a manner that will afterward be difficult to modify

Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind’s styles of parenting Connection between parental behavior and development of instrumental competence Instrumental competence is the ability to manipulate the environment to achieve one’s goals. Four aspects of parental behavior - 1) Restrictness; 2) Demands for child to achieve intellectual, emotional and social maturity; 3) Communication ability; 4) Warmth and involvement

Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind’s styles of parenting Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Uninvolved authoritative parents – parents who are strict and warm; authoritative parents demand mature behavior but use reason rather than force in discipline authoritarian parents – parents who are rigid in their rules and who demand obedience for the sake of obedience permissive parents – parents who impose few, if any, rules and who do not supervise their children closely uninvolved parents – parents who generally leave their children to themselves Outcomes from parenting: Authoritative – children have greatest self-reliance, self-esteem, social competence, and achievement motivation Authoritarian – children are withdrawn or aggressive and usually do not do as well in school as children of authoritative parents Permissive – children seem to be less mature and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive Uninvolved – children tend to be more likely to hang out with crowds who “party” a good deal and use drugs

Outcomes from Parenting Styles Authoritative greatest self-reliance, self esteem, social competence, achievement motivation Authoritarian withdrawn or aggressive

Outcomes from Parenting Styles Permissive less mature, often impulsive, moody, aggressive Uninvolved linked to delinquency and poor academic performance

Adolescence LO3 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social and emotional development of adolescents.

Physical Development Growth spurt Puberty Begins with appearance of secondary sex characteristics Menarche Usually occurs between 11 and 14 adolescence – the period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities puberty – the period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first becomes possible secondary sex characteristics – characteristics that distinguish females from males, such as distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in reproduction menarche – the beginning of menstruation

Brain Development Repetitive actions create increases in thickness of appropriate cerebral cortex Immaturity of frontal lobe Poor judgment Excessive risks

Cognitive Development Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage Classification, logical thought, ability to hypothesize Abstract thinking Able to deal with hypothetical situations Adolescent Egocentrism Imaginary Audience Personal Fable formal operational stage – Piaget’s fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles imaginary audience – an aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other people are as concerned with our thoughts and behaviors as we are personal fable – another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable

Moral Reasoning Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level Most people do not reach this level Judgment is based on person’s personal values Stage 5 – Laws are made to preserve order but exceptions can occur Stage 6 – Adherence to universal ethical principles postconventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards

Social and Emotional Development Independence is the challenge of adolescence Relationships with parents and peers Spend less time with parents Conflicts with parents Spend more time with peers Peers may reinforce positive behaviors

Social and Emotional Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Ego Identity versus Role Diffusion ego identity – Erikson’s term for a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for role diffusion – Erikson’s term for lack of clarity in one’s life roles (due to failure to develop ego identity) Four of the eight stages of Erikson’s theory were listed in infancy and childhood; ego identity versus role diffusion is the next stage which occurs during adolescence.

Emerging Adulthood LO4 Explain the features of emerging adulthood.

Emerging Adulthood New distinction in development Roughly between ages 18 to 25 Attend college, sort out identity, create life plans emerging adulthood - period of development, roughly spanning the ages of 18 to 25, during which time many young people in affluent nations attend college and graduate school, sort out identity issues, and create life plans

Emerging Adulthood Age of identity exploration Age of instability Age of self-focus Age of feeling in-between Age of possibilities

Adulthood LO5 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adults.

Physical Development Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late Adulthood Usually height of physical prowess Middle adulthood Gradual physical decline Women – menopause Late Adulthood Bones become brittle – greater risk for falls Slower response time menopause – the cessation of menstruation

The Relentless March of Time Figure 9.7 The Relentless March of Time Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this figure.

Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. FICTION Frank Lloyd Wright was not 65; he was actually 89!

Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. FICTION! Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. FICTION Frank Lloyd Wright was not 65; he was actually 89!

Cognitive Development Creativity can be evidenced throughout lifetime Memory functioning declines with age Crystallized intelligence Fluid intelligence Tasks that require speed and visual spatial skills decline crystallized intelligence – one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs fluid intelligence – mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly to solve new kinds of problems

Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. FICTION Alzheimer’s disease is not a normal part of aging. Although connected with aging, it is a disease rather than a normal progression.

Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. FICTION Alzheimer’s disease is not a normal part of aging. Although connected with aging, it is a disease rather than a normal progression.

Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive form of mental deterioration Affects 1 in 10 Americans between ages 65 and 74 It is a disease, not a normal progression Alzheimer’s disease – a progressive form of mental deterioration characterized by loss of memory, language, problem solving, and other cognitive functions

Social and Emotional Development Great variety based on cultural expectations and individual behavior patterns Trends More optimistic than previous generation Grow psychologically healthier as they advance to middle age

Social and Emotional Development Early Adulthood Establish their independence Middle Adulthood Empty nest syndrome Sandwich generation empty-nest syndrome - a sense of depression and loss of purpose felt by some parents when the youngest child leaves home. sandwich generation - people in middle adulthood who are responsible for meeting the needs of their children yet also responsible for aging parents.

Truth or Fiction? Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. Truth or Fiction? Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. FICTION It is not true that most parents experience an empty-nest syndrome when the youngest child leaves home.

Truth or Fiction? Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. FICTION! Truth or Fiction? Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. FICTION It is not true that most parents experience an empty-nest syndrome when the youngest child leaves home.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Young adulthood Intimacy versus Isolation Middle adulthood Generativity versus Stagnation Late adulthood Ego integrity versus Despair These are the last three stages of Erikson’s theory. The first four appeared during the infancy and childhood section – stage five during adolescence and now the last three.