INTERACTIONS 1914 - Present WAR DIPLOMACY

DRIFT TOWARDS WAR Slavic Nationalism Anglo-German Rivalry Pan-Slavism stressed unity of Slavs under Russia In Turkey: Bulgars, Macedonians sought independence Austrian Slavs: independence or rights within Austria Hungarian Slavs: unification with independent Serbia Germany backed Austria-Hungary Anglo-German Rivalry Naval race between Germany, Britain increased tensions German industrialization threatened British lead Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century Germany sought colonies at others expense France, Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905 Balkan wars (1912-13) strained diplomatic relations France, UKGB, Russia came together to oppose Germany Public opinion supported national rivalries Attitudes of patriotism among European citizens Leaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risks

COLONIAL EMPIRES, c. 1914

ALLIANCES & WAR PLANS Rival systems of alliance The Central Powers Obligated allies to come to one another's defense Included all great powers and many lesser powers Even included Japan The Central Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary formed a Dual Alliance 1879 In fear of France, Italy joined, now Triple Alliance Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Rumania affiliated with Germany The Allies Britain, France, Russia formed the Triple Entente, or Allies Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914 Belgium, Serbia linked to Allies War plans: each power poised and prepared for war Military leaders devised inflexible military plans France's Plan focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks Germany's plan: swiftly defeat France, then Russia Neutrals were not to be respected Wars were to be swift and over by Christmas

WORLD WAR I BEGINS The guns of August - June 1914: Countries race towards war The Western front Stalemate caused by new weapons Bloodletting: long, costly battles New technologies favored defensive tactics over offensive tactics Armored tanks used to break down trenches toward end of the war Airplanes used mainly for reconnaissance Submarines Used especially by Germans against Allied shipping Unrestricted warfare against all vessels to isolate Great Britain On the eastern front Battle lines more fluid Russians gradually overrun by Germans, Austria New rules of engagement Civilians became targets of enemy military operations Air raids against civilians; naval blockades common Total war: the home front On the home front: the economy mobilized to the war effort Women served the war by entering the workforce Propaganda campaigns to maintain national support for the war

WORLD WAR I OUTSIDE OF EUROPE British, French forces used colonials as troops, bearers FR: Senegalese troops at Marne, Vietnamese bearers used UK: Indian troops in SW Asia, African bearers Australia, New Zealand, Canada heavily involved Asia-Pacific Japan entered war with Allies to get German holdings in area The Twenty-One Demands Japan advanced its imperial interests in China 21 Demands were designed to reduce China to Japanese protectorate Britain intervened, prevented total capitulation of China to Japan Sub-Saharan Africa Allies targeted the four German colonies in Africa Togoland fell quickly, but not the others: long, protracted warfare Many Allied soldiers and workers died from tropical diseases The Ottoman Empire and SW Asia Battle of Gallipoli, 1915, in Ottoman Turkey British decided to strike at the weakest Central Power, the Ottomans Battle of Gallipoli a disaster, with 250,000 casualties on each side The Ottoman empire lost ground after Gallipoli Lost Caucasus to Russians Armenian Holocaust: Turks killed more than 1 million, relocated many Successful Arab revolt aided by British By 1918, British occupied Fertile Crescent Allies had secretly agreed to partition Ottoman

END OF THE WAR Russia U.S. intervention Collapse of the Central Powers 1917 February or Democratic Revolution in Russia Uprising against shortages, mounting deaths in the war Facing mutinies, Nicholas II abdicated Struggle for power between provisional government, soviets New government passed many liberal reforms Did not undertake land reform, did not withdraw from the war V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) stepped into unstable situation A revolutionary Marxist, exiled in Switzerland Saw importance of a well-organized, disciplined party for revolution 1917 October or Communist Revolution Minority Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd soviet Bolsheviks' slogan "Peace, Land, and Bread" appealed to workers, peasants Russia withdrew from war, made a separate peace with Germany U.S. intervention United States under President Woodrow Wilson officially neutral American public opposed to participation but U.S. sold supplies, gave loans By 1917, Allied ability to repay loans depended on Allied victory The submarine warfare helped sway American public opinion German blockade sank merchant ships, intended to strangle Britain 1915, Germans sank Lusitania, a British passenger liner, killing 1,198 United States declared war on Germany, 6 April 1917 Collapse of the Central Powers US produces food, engines, aircraft for allies; US troops halt Germans Allied troops on offensive in West, Balkans, Middle East, Italy Germany was the last of Central Powers to seek armistice

PARIS PEACE COFERENCE, 1919 Wilson's 14 Points: proposal for a just and lasting peace Free trade, rights for colonials, self-determination, association of nations Most rejected by Allies; Central Powers surrendered based on them Results of War Great War killed fifteen million people, wounded twenty million Set stage for decolonization after World War II Economic crises: inflation, debt, loss of investments, foreign markets Economic relationship between Europe, US; United States now creditor Loss of prestige overseas weakened European grip on colonies Paris settlement was dominated by Britain, France, United States Twenty-seven nations with conflicting aims participated; Peace dictated Leaders of Central Powers and Soviet Union not included The Peace Treaties, 1919 French insisted on destroying German military Central Powers forced to accept war guilt and pay reparations for cost of war Austria, Hungary separated, reduced; new states added to eastern Europe Overall, the peace settlement was a failure; left a bitter legacy Self-determination for ethnic nationalities Basis for redrawing map of Eastern Europe: Difficult to draw lines Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania were all multi-national German, Italian, Hungarian minorities not granted self-determination Colonial issues never discussed; self-determination not granted for colonies Revolutionary Ideas: Arabs, Asians, Africans Outraged The war helped spread concept of self-determination Nationalist movements also sought inspiration from the Soviet Union Felt betrayed, ignored by their allies Wanted independence from Ottomans, end of foreign concessions

LEAGUE OF NATIONS The League of Nations created to maintain world peace Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe Dominated by UK, France and used as force against Germany The league had no power to enforce its decisions League could only Make suggestions Impose sanctions Blockades Collective security depended on all major powers Powers Left Out United States never joined USSR ignored Germany not invited for some time The mandate system United States opposed direct colonization Allies proposed system of trusteeships France, United Kingdom benefited most Created from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. Asia Idealistic Attempts Attempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treaties Attempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treaty Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

INTERWAR DIPLOMACY Japan European aggression Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931 League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league 1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China 1937 War In China Resumed Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks Japan, Germany, Italy ally 1940; neutrality pact with USSR, 1941 European aggression Italy after the Great War Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference Mussolini promised national glory, empire Invaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians; annexed Albania Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions, depression helped Nazis Hitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing war, Versailles Treaty After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement Withdrew from League, 1933; Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft Militarized Rhineland, 1936; Austria, 1938; France and Britain did nothing Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939 Spanish fascists stage coup against republic; socialists, communists fight Italians, Germans, Russians helped each side but fascists won The Munich Conference: Peace for our time? In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland Britain and France desperate to avoid war, appeased Hitler Russian-German Non-Aggression Treaty, 1939, shocked world

WORLD WAR II: AXIS 1939 - 1942 Blitzkreig: Germany conquers Europe Strategy of a "lightening war": unannounced, surprise attacks Conquests: 1939 - Poland; 1940 - France, Norway, Denmark, Low Countries Battle of the Atlantic pitted German submarines against British convoys The battle of Britain was a British victory against the German airforce Germans, British, Italians fight see-saw war in the deserts of North Africa The German invasion of the Soviet Union 1941: Germany conquers the Balkans, invades USSR in June 1941 Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity Russian winter caught German troops ill-prepared Germans stalled at Battle of Stalingrad U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor Roosevelt sold and then "loaned" arms and war material to the British Later supplied the Soviets and the Chinese Japanese expansion Continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941 United States responded by freezing Japanese assets, implementing oil embargo Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia Prime minister Tojo developed plan of attack 7 December 1941 US navy at Pearl Harbor attacked US declared war on Japan; Germany and Italy declared war on United States Japanese victories after Pearl Harbor Conquered Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Indochina, Burma, Singapore Slogan "Asia for Asia" masked Japanese imperialism against fellow Asians

WORLD WAR II: 1942 - 1945 Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941 USSR brought vital personnel and USA industry to Allies Russia fielded 350 divisions against the German 130 Germany forced to fight a two front war German subs sank 2,452 merchants ships, but U.S. shipyards built more Allied victories came after 1943 Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back 1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944 Round-the-clock strategic bombing by Allies leveled German cities Germans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicide Turning the tide in the Pacific The Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code Island-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks US launched unrestricted submarine warfare against Japanese empire British invade Japanese empire through Burma, SE Asia Chinese nationalists, communists tie down 2 million Japanese troops Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa US launches round the clock air raids against Japan Japanese used kamikazes; Okinawan civilians refused to surrender U.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrender Japanese surrender after devastating assault U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, 100,000 killed August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 200,000 Japanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWII

WORLD WAR II ALLIANCES

HOME FRONTS Occupation, collaboration, and resistance Patterns of occupation varied Japanese conquests: puppet governments, independent allies, or military control German conquests: racially "superior" people given greater autonomy Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces In Asia, Japanese domination not much different from European domination Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops Resistance to occupation took many forms Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war Women and the war "It's a Woman's War, Too!" Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys Women's social roles changed dramatically By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war "Comfort women" Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels 80 percent of comfort women came from Korea Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame

SETTLEMENTS & COLD WAR Soviet Union and United States vied for nonaligned nations War left millions of casualties and refugees At least sixty million people died in WWII, highest in Soviet Union and China Eight million Germans fled west to British, U.S. territories to escape Soviet army Twelve million Germans and Soviet prisoners of war made their way home Survivors of camps and three million refugees from the Balkans returned home The origins of the cold war (1947-1990) Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation" Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war 1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression 1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security

COLD WAR IN EUROPE Postwar Europe Divided into competing political, military, economic blocs NATO, European Economic Communities Warsaw Pact, COMECON Neutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia Western Europe U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies Eastern Europe Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries Germany divided east and west in 1949 Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949 Soviet closed roads, trains, tried to strangle West Berlin into submission Britain and United States kept city supplied with round-the-clock airlift Soviets backed down and ended blockade The Berlin Wall, 1961 1949-1961, refugees from East to West Germany, East to West Berlin Soviet solution: a wall of barbed wire through the city fortified the border Former Allied nations objected but did not risk a full conflict over the wall Nuclear arms race Terrifying proliferation of nuclear weapons by both sides NATO and Warsaw Treaty Organization amassed huge weapons stockpiles By 1960s USSR reached military parity with United States By 1970 both superpowers acquired MAD, "mutually assured destruction"

UNITED NATIONS, 1945

WARSAW PACT ORGANIZATION COLD WAR ALLIANCES WARSAW PACT ORGANIZATION COMECON NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION S.E. ASIAN TREATY ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES

THE COLD WAR WORLD, c. 1982

COLD WAR CONFLICT The Korea War, 1951-1953 Korea divided at 38th parallel; U.S. ally in south, Soviet ally in north North Korean troops crossed 38th parallel and captured Seoul, June 1950 U.S. and UN troops pushed back North Korean troops to Chinese border Chinese troops came in, pushed U.S. forces, allies back in the south Both sides agreed to a cease-fire in July 1953, again at 38th parallel Globalization of containment Western fears of international communism must be contained Creation of SEATO, an Asian counterpart of NATO “Domino theory": if one country falls to communism, others will follow Cuba: nuclear flashpoint Fidel Castro establishes guerrilla force in mountains, 1953 Overthrew dictator Batista in 1959 Castro declared that his government would be socialist, angers USA Castro seized U.S. properties, killed, exiled political opponents United States cut off Cuban sugar imports, imposed export embargo Castro accepted Soviet economic aid and arms shipments Bay of Pigs fiasco, April 1961 CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed Diminished U.S. prestige in Latin America Cuban missile crisis, October 1962 Soviet deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at USA; claimed Cuban defense Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded removal; two tense weeks Khrushchev backed down; Kennedy pledged not to overthrow Castro

DÉTENTE & DECLINE OF BIPOLAR WORLD Era of cooperation Leaders of both superpowers agreed on policy of détente, late 1960s Exchanged visits and signed agreements calling for cooperation, 1972, 1974 Concluded Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 1972, again 1979 Demise of détente Full U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 created U.S.-USSR strain U.S. weapons sale to China in 1981 undermined U.S.-Soviet cooperation 1980 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan prompted U.S. economic sanctions U.S. defeat in Vietnam 1950s, United States committed to support noncommunist government in South Vietnam U.S. involvement escalated through 1960s United States and allies unable to defeat North and South Vietnamese communists President Nixon pledged in 1968 to end war with Vietnam U.S. troops gradually withdrew; U.S. phase of war ended in 1973 North Vietnam continued war effort, unified the nation in 1976 Soviet setbacks in Afghanistan Afghanistan had been a nonaligned nation until 1978, pro-Soviet coup Radical reforms in 1978 prompted backlash Islamic leaders objected to radical social change, led armed resistance 1979, rebels controlled much of Afghan countryside; USSR intervened United States and other nations supported anti-PDPA rebels; struggle lasted nine years 1989 cease-fire negotiation by UN led to full Soviet withdrawal Taliban forces captured Kabul and declared Afghanistan a strict Islamic state, 1996 Cold war countercultural protests in 1960s and 1970s Cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Dr. Strangelove, 1964 European and U.S. students agitated for peace, end to arms race, Vietnam war Rock and roll music expressed student discontent

END OF COLD WAR Revolution in east and central Europe Moscow's legacies After World War II, Soviets had credibility for defeating Nazis Communism unable to satisfy nationalism in eastern and central Europe Soviet-backed governments lacked support and legitimacy Soviet interventions in 1956 and 1968 dashed hopes of a humane socialism Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader 1985-1991 1989, Gorbachev announced restructuring of USSR, withdrawal from cold war Satellites states informed that each was on its own, without Soviet support Rapid collapse of communist regimes across eastern and central Europe, 1989 In Poland, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa won election of 1990 Communism overthrown peacefully in Bulgaria and Hungary Czechoslovakia's "velvet revolution" in 1990, divided into Czech Republic, Slovakia Only violent revolution was in Romania; ended with death of communist dictator East Germany opened Berlin Wall in 1989; two Germanys were united in 1990 The collapse of the Soviet Union Gorbachev's reforms Gorbachev hoped for economic reform within political and economic system Centralized economy inefficient, military spending excessive Declining standard of living, food shortages, shoddy goods Perestroika: "restructuring" the economy Tried decentralizing economy, market system, profit motive Alienated those in positions of power, military leaders Glasnost: "openness" to public criticism, admitting past mistakes Opened door to widespread criticism of party and government Ethnic minorities, especially Baltic peoples, declared independence from USSR Russian Republic, led by Boris Yeltsin, also demanded independence Collapse of the Soviet Union, December 1991 In 1991, conservatives attempted coup; wished to restore communism With help of loyal Red Amy units, Boris Yeltsin crushed the coup Yeltsin dismantled Communist party, led market-oriented economic reforms Regions of ethnic groups became independent; Soviet Union ceased to exist

GUERRILLA STRUGGLES Definition Previous Historical Examples Small trained groups conduct military operations Targets associated with government, economy Avoid conflict with larger, regular military forces Inspiration Nationalism Political Independence Political Ideology Religion Previous Historical Examples Dutch against Spanish, late 16th and early 17th century Americans against British, late 18th century Spanish against Napoleon, early 19th century Russians against Napoleon, early 19th century Boers against British in Boer War, late 19th century

GUERRILLA MOVEMENTS: VIETNAM Indochina was a French colony Nationalist movements arrested by French Model aims after Chinese nationalist parties In 1940, Japanese occupy area in agreement with Vichy French 1945 – 1959 Ho Chi Minh founds Vietnamese Communist Party Fought French, Japanese in World War II Declared Vietnam independent in 1945 French decided to reassert colonial rule Viet Minh defeated French 1954 Dien Bien Phu Vietnam partitioned at 17th parallel 1959 – 1975 US assumes roll of aid to anti-communist south Viet Cong wage war against corrupt South Vietnamese state Communist guerrilla movements in Laos, Cambodia, too US troops reach 300,000 but cannot win war 1968: Tet Offensive broke Viet Cong, US will to win US eventually withdraws, South fights loosing battle North Vietnam takes control of South in 1975 1979 Vietnam invades Cambodia To displace murderous Pol Pot Regime Khmer Rouge use guerrilla warfare against Vietnamese Other Communist Guerrilla Movements Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau against Portuguese Yugoslavia, Albania against Nazi occupation

RELIGIOUS GUERRILLA MOVEMENTS Iran: 1953 – 1979 Shah Reza Pahlavi Modernization equals westernization; export of oil, military take top priority Ruled with secret police, tyranny Violent clashes between protestors, police Ayatollah Khomeni Traditionalist movement unites opposition; ousts Shah in 1979 Established Muslim fundamentalist state Takes US diplomats hostage in 1979, released 1981 Actively sponsors Muslim terrorist groups abroad HAMAS: Palestine; FPLO: Radical branch of the PLO Hezbollah: Lebanon Shites; Islamic Jihad Afghanistan: 1979 – 2002 1979: USSR invades to support pro-Soviet government Mujahidin forces fight until 1989 Communist regime collages 1992 after Soviets withdraw troops 1996 Taliban Islamic Fundamentalist militia take control Anti-western; anti-women; anti-democracy Attacks images of west, non-Islamic culture (blew up Buddha statues) Anti-any group which was not Muslim Supports Islamic terrorist groups abroad (Osama bin Laden) US topples regime after it supported 9-11 attacks on US

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Post-1945 Era of international cooperation Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964 Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970 Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch The United Nations Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security" Security Council Permanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, China Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war Often can diffuse tense situations General Assembly Each nation has one vote; poor, 3rd world nations dominate Cannot legislate, but has influence in international community Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West ECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHO More successful in health and educational goals Eradication of smallpox and other diseases Decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance Nuremberg Trials of Nazis Established concept of "crimes against humanity“ Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights Forbids slavery, torture, discrimination Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms

GENOCIDES Types of Murder Armenian Holocaust The Holocaust Genocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe out Democide: Mass murder of people by government Ethnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills another Armenian Holocaust First genocide of 20th century Turks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War I The Holocaust Long history of anti-Semitism Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control The "final solution" Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland Jewish resistance Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against Germans Altogether About 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles died Almost 98% of all Gypsies were murdered Other Examples Democides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/Congo Genocides: Rwanda, Sudan Ethnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in Iraq

21ST CENTURY POWER BLOCKS