Waning Power in the Middle East The Ottoman Empire and Egypt in the Long 19th century

The Decline of the Ottoman Empire The “Sick Man of Europe” 1800-1922

Reasons for Ottoman Decline Internal power struggles: Janissaries, Ulama, and government officials vied for power.

Unable to compete with the West Ottomans failed to industrialize Influx of Western manufactured goods led to decline of cottage industries.

Europeans took advantage of the “Sick Man.” Austria-Hungary push Ottomans out of Bulgaria and Hungary Russia expanded into Crimea and Caucasus. Christian states fight for independence Greece 1829. Serbia 1867.

How did the Ottomans manage to survive the 19th century? Europeans feared a shift in the balance of power; supported Ottomans against Russia. Internal reforms preserved the empire temporarily.

Sultan Selim III attempts reform Pushed for modernization of government bureaucracy and military. sparked Janissary revolt in 1807. Selim was executed in 1807.

Mahmud II attempts at reform. Secretly built a professional army and destroyed the Janissaries. Imitated western models and opened diplomatic relations with European powers.

Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876) Western-style university education introduced. Infrastructure updated. Newspapers established. Constitution modeled on European states adopted. Expanded trade hurt artisans. Reforms had little effect on women.

Effects of these reforms Strengthened the Empire. Economic ties to Germany grew. Weakened the Sultanate. Western educated elites saw the Sultan, Ulama, and Ayan as a barriers to further reform. Sultan Abdul Hamid (1878-1908) responded with repressive measures; restricting rights and killing dissidents.

Rise of the Young Turks Ottoman Society for Union and Progress formed by exiled dissidents in Paris in 1889. Young Turks came to power in 1908. Restored Constitution and civil liberties. Sultan retained as a figurehead.

Results of Young Turks reign Infighting limited reform. Arab resistance within the empire grew. The attempt to create a “pure” Turkish state, one people, one religion led to the Armenian Genocide (nearly 1.5 million of this Christian minority was slaughtered). Entrance into WWI as a Central Power.

World War I Alliances 1914-1918

The Decline of Egypt After French (Napoleon) withdrawal, Albanian-Ottoman officer, Muhammad Ali, emerged as Egypt’s ruler (1811).

Ali attempts to reform Egypt Introduced European military reforms that freed him from dependence on the Ottomans. Attempted, with limited success, to modernize Egypt’s economy: Increase production of cash crops Built up infrastructure (harbors and irrigation) Encouraged foreign investment.

Results of Ali’s reforms Influx of European goods discouraged industrialization Landlords strengthened at the expense of the peasants. Loans from European bank gave the West inroads in Egypt.

Reform ended by Ali’s successors. Allowed the ayan to profit at the expense of the peasantry. Turned Egypt into one-crop economy. Tax revenues spent on extravagant pastimes for the elite, and military campaigns in the Sudan. The regime became indebted to European banks. Europeans invested in the building of the Suez Canal (1869).

Efforts made to save Egypt. Muslim intellectuals and political activists looked for ways to protect Egypt from its inept khedival rulers. University of al-Azhar became a focal center for Muslims from many lands.

Differences developed. Some of the thinkers thought tradition and the past should serve as the model for Egypt. Others thinkers (al-Afghani & Muhammad Abduh), pushed for Muslims to adopt Western science and technology. emphasized the importance of rational inquiry. Denied the idea that the single source of truth was found in a literally interpreted Qur’an These difference damaged Muslim ability to meet the European threat.

British Influence in Egypt Grew. The strategic importance of the Suez Canal stimulated British and French thoughts of intervention. When army officer Ahmad Orabi led a revolt against the khedives (1882), the British intervened to save the ruler. British consuls thereafter directed the Egyptian government through “puppet” khedives.

The Mahdi Movement. Muslims in Sudan rallied around Muhammad Achmad, the “Mahdi” (messiah). The Mahdi proclaimed a jihad against the Egyptians and British. Wished to return Islam to its original purity. The Mahdi won control of the Sudan. Movement continued under Khalifa Abdallahi. Mahdists built a strong state with a society closely regulated by strict Islamic norms. The British crushed the Mahdist forces at in 1896. Local economies became more dependent on European products and demands.

Islamic Fundamentalism No separation between religion and government: Shari’a law NOT secular law. Alcohol and dancing banned. Women covered in public; men must have beards. Theft, adultery, and apostasy severely punished. Religious minorities (and other Muslim sects) persecuted. Islamic rituals enforced. Current strains: Wahhabism as practiced by the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.