Gender

Sex, Sexuality, Gender the body is "simultaneously a physical and symbolic artifact, both naturally and culturally produced, anchored in a particular historical moment" (Scheper-Hughes & Lock) Sex, sexuality, & gender –Not the same thing

Sex differences in biology Is this a man or woman? –How do you know?

Sex & the Social Order Tells us part of the story, but not all of the story

Sexuality (reproduction) all societies regulate sexuality –lots of variation cross-culturally degree of restrictiveness not always consistent through life span –adolescence vs. adulthood Varieties of “normative” sexual orientation –Heterosexual, homosexual, transexual Sexuality in societies change over time

Gender

GENDER - the cultural construction of male & female characteristics –vs. the biological nature of men & women SEX differences are biological - GENDER differences are cultural behavioral & attitudinal differences from social & cultural rather than biological point of view Gender refers to the ways members of the two sexes are perceived, evaluated and expected to behave

Gender Boundaries since gender is culturally constructed the boundaries are conceptual rather than physical Boundaries require markers to indicate gender the boundaries are dynamic, eg. now it is acceptable for men to wear earrings

Boundary Markers Voice Physique Dress Behaviour Hair style Kinetics Language use

Boundary Markers & Inter-personal Interaction How do we react when someone seems to have traits of each category? social intercourse requires that the interacting parties know to which gender category `the other' belongs Felicita Vestvali New York opera star who specialized in singing contralto "trouser roles."

Women cross dress all the time. The difference is perception. Acceptance or Rejection by society

Blurring the Boundaries persistence of dualisms in ideologies of gender a particular view of men and women as opposite kinds of creatures both biologically and culturally essentialism of western ideas of sexual dimorphism - dichotomized into natural & then moral entities of male & female that are given to all persons, one or the other other categories - every society including our own is at some time or other faced with people who do not fit into its sex & gender categories

“Third” Gender a significant number of people are born with genitalia that is neither clearly male or female –Hermaphrodites persons who change their biological sex persons who exhibit behavior deemed appropriate for the opposite sex persons who take on other gender roles other than those indicated by their genitals

“Third” Gender multiple cultural & historical worlds in which people of divergent gender & sexual desire exist –margins or borders of society may pass as normal to remain hidden in the official ideology & everyday commerce of social life In some societies when discovered - iconic matter out of place - "monsters of the cultural imagination“ third gender as sexual deviance a common theme in US –evolution & religious doctrine –heterosexuality the highest form, the most moral way of life, its natural

The Hijras of India and Pakistan

The Hijras as “Third Gender” Hijra means hermaphrodite in Urdu but most Hijras are homosexual transvestites, some of whom have gone through a crude sex-change operation (transexual) Cultural descendants of the court eunuchs of the Mughal Empire ( ) Perceived neither as men nor women but as a third gender

Hijras and Social Roles Hijras now earn their living as beggars, prostitutes. and by dancing at carnivals, weddings and births. both feared and pitied in Pakistan –feared for their supposed ability to place curses –pitied for being outcast children of Allah –Believed to hold great power because of their close relationship with the Mother Goddess - Mata Bahuchara getting dressed for a job entertaining at a Pakistani wedding

Is it possible to have a genderless society?

Third Gender Cross-Culturally provokes us to reexamine our own assumptions regarding our gender system emphasizes gender role alternatives as adaptations to economic and political conditions rather than as "deviant" and idiosyncratic behavior rigid dichotomozation of genders is a means of perpetuating the domination of females by males and patriarchal institutions.

GENDER ROLES, STEREOTYPES, STRATIFICATION gender roles - tasks & activities that a culture assigns to sexes gender stereotypes - oversimplified strongly held ideas about the characteristics of men & women & third sex-third gender gender stratification - unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power, prestige, personal freedom) between men & women reflecting their position in the social hierarchy

Gender & the Social Order

Social Stratification & Gender Gender is an important dimension of social inequality Gender stratification frequently takes the form of patriarchy whereby men dominate women Do women in our society have a second class status relative to men? If so How?

universals versus particulars universal subordination of women is often cited as one of the true cross-cultural universals, a pan-cultural fact –Engels called it the “world historical defeat of women” even so the particulars of women’s roles, statuses, power, and value differ tremendously by culture

persistence of dualisms in ideologies of gender a particular view of men and women as opposite kinds of creatures both biologically and culturally nature/culture domestic/public reproduction/production

Production, Reproduction & Social Roles Production roles – making a living Reproduction roles - those minimal institutions and modes of activity that are organized immediately around one or more mothers and their children women everywhere lactate & give birth to children likely to be associated with child rearing & responsibilities of the home

a long running controversy in anthropology Sherry Ortner’s famous article “Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture” argument is that across cultures, women are more often associated with nature and the natural and are therefore denigrated Ortner - in reality women are no further nor closer to nature than men - cultural valuations make women appear closer to nature than men

ROSIE THE RIVETER All the day long, Whether rain or shine, She's a part of the assembly line. She's making history, Working for victory, Rosie the Riveter. Keeps a sharp lookout for sabatoge, Sitting up there on the fuselage. That little girl will do more than a male will do. Rosie's got a boyfriend, Charlie. Charlie, he's a Marine. Rosie is protecting Charlie, Working overtime on the riveting machine. When they gave her a production "E," She was as proud as she could be. There's something true about, Red, white, and blue about, Rosie the Riveter. Redd Evans and John Jacob Loeb, "Rosie the Riveter," (New York: Paramount Music Corp., 1942 Gender Roles

November 1942 “For whether she rears a family or mans a rangefinder, a woman needs the physical support of a good foundation." and "Amongst other munitions of war, Berlei are still making foundations.". In the 1940s, women were encouraged to help the war effort by getting a job outside the home. But it was family and country rather than money, status, or power that they were encouraged to toil for. Coke 1942

1950s - mass consumption in high gear, TV ads idealized the woman as the wife and homemaker, and the man as the bread winner. But also the sex kitten

Cascade Dishwashing Detergent 1958 issue of Lady's Home Journal. The man in this advertisement is envious of his hostess' spotless drinking glasses. Rather than giving him advice on how to get his glasses just as clear, she advises him to tell his wife to use Cascade. The designers of this ad assume that washing dishes is a woman's chore. The roles are strictly defined; it never crosses the woman's mind that Jean's husband might have something to do with dishwashing in his household.

1990s 2000s She is a "multifaceted success machine”. She is a nurturer and a seducer. She is the twenty-four hour a day woman, and she never sleeps.

This ad is striking because it shows a man in what is typically thought of as a woman’s role. What does the fact that he can open the pail “without passing out” say about men? Men are domesticated. Sex objects

DOMESTIC - PUBLIC DICHOTOMY (M. Rosaldo) opposition between domestic (reproduction) & public (production) provides the basis of a framework necessary to identify and explore the place of male & female in psycho, cultural, social and economic aspects of life degree to which the contrast between public domestic (private) sphere is drawn promotes gender stratification-rewards, prestige, power

domestic sphere clearly drawn in societies where division of labor encompasses more than age & sex differentiation (complex societies) inequality in material rewards for labor less clearly drawn in societies where division of labor beyond age & sex is minimal (egalitarian) rewards are highly valued social roles with prestige rather than material goods

Domestic : Public Spheres mobility & gender Domestic : public dichotomy not only distinguishes activities, but culturally encodes space

M. Rosaldo and the Ilongot of the Philippines positive cultural value placed adventure, travel, knowledge of & experience with the outside world Ilongot men as headhunters visited distant places, amassed experiences & returned to express their knowledge-receive acclaim Ilongot women - these activities not available to them

Mobility, Public : Domestic (Private), and Gender Stratification mobility not just through geographic space but social space (forms of association) veiling & Islamic women factory women in Malaysia US & Canada - WW2 & factory women for war effort 1960s, 70s, 80s - changing gender composition of economy

Labor Force Participation for U.S. Women and Men, aged  Women’s increased participation in paid work is a central change in gender relations over the last 50 years.  Labor force participation is often seen as the prime indicator (and cause) of changes in women’s status.  Social theory often focuses on women’s employment because employment determines their access to resources and their ability to make independent decisions.

Gender Stereotypes

What is the thinnest book in the world? What men know about women! What do you call a man with an I.Q. of 50? Gifted! Why are blonde jokes so short? So men can remember them. What is the difference between men and government bonds? Bonds mature! How many men does it take to change a roll of toilet paper? We don't know - it's never happened. How many honest, intelligent, caring men in the world does it take to do the dishes? Both of them. Why are married women heavier than single women? Single women come home, see what's in the fridge and go to bed. Married women come home, see what's in bed and go to the fridge.

A woman walked into the kitchen to find her husband stalking around with a fly swatter. she: "What are you doing?" he: "Hunting Flies" she: "Oh. Killing any?“ he: "Yep, 3 males, 2 Females," she: Intrigued, "How can you tell them apart?" he: "3 were on a beer can, 2 were on the phone."

Are women universally or always subordinate to men?

1.Biologically men are physically stronger than women 2.therefore this results in a sexual division of labour with men doing the harder work 3.In other words biology influences behaviour 4.implies that the relationship between biology and social life is one of cause and effect. If biology explains the political and economic dominance of men then surely one must simply accept that fact

So much for that theory --- in many societies women are the real labourers biological differences cannot provide a universal basis for social definitions of `man' and `woman'

 it is true, generally men are physically stronger than women this may account for some of the division of labour  But nothing in the biological differences between the sexes can account for women’s secondary status  Gender stratification is not inherent in biological differences between the sexes But so what  what is really important is the different values that are placed on being a man or a woman or on the work that is done  An alternative explanation for the secondary status of women must be found

 there must be some cultural or sociological regularities that must account for male dominance.  the inequalities are due to the fact that societies place different values on biological sex  and apparently universally value female sex lower than male sex Which card is ranked higher?

Anthropological Theories of Gender Inequality political power that results from the ability to give & receive goods in exchange (redistribution) allows for sexual stratification in non-class societies female status dependent on degree to which men & women participate in activities of reproduction, warfare, subsistence not rights & control over production but rights of distribution & control over channels of distribution critical for gender stratification

RETHINKING SUBORDINATION Ardener - muted models that underlie male discourse diversity of one life or many lives gender roles, stereotypes, stratification –changes over time –changes with position in lifecycle –status of men & women i.e. in male dominant societies decision making roles belong to men but as women reach menopause; change with marriage status, virgins, wives, widows (and men)

RETHINKING SUBORDINATION women, like men, are social actors who work in structured ways to achieve desired ends formal authority structure of a society may declare that women are impotent & irrelevant but attention to women's strategies & motives, sorts of choices, relationships established, ends achieved indicates women have good deal of power strategies appear deviant & disruptive –actual components of how social life proceeds