1. Gender and Language Variation Wolfram & Schilling-Estes Chapter 8

2. Why would we expect to find linguistic differentiation between men and women? Social differentiation is reflected in linguistic differentiation Social differentiation is reflected in linguistic differentiation The phenomenon exists in other languages The phenomenon exists in other languages

3. The role of language ideology Two clear-cut categories Two clear-cut categories Biological sex (cf. “race”) Biological sex (cf. “race”) Characteristics grounded in “natural” features of two groups Characteristics grounded in “natural” features of two groups –Pitch difference –Directness A caveat: research shows that there is always more variation within each category than across categories A caveat: research shows that there is always more variation within each category than across categories

4. “gender” as social construct/practice Not: “What gender differences will I find?” Not: “What gender differences will I find?” Rather: “What sorts of language features do people use to present themselves as women vs. men, or as particular kinds of women of men?” Rather: “What sorts of language features do people use to present themselves as women vs. men, or as particular kinds of women of men?” Gender is something that one “does” rather than “has” Gender is something that one “does” rather than “has”

5. Problems in dealing with gender: Lack of social separation as with other social categories Lack of social separation as with other social categories Intersection of class and ethnicity Intersection of class and ethnicity

6. 8.1 Gender-based Patterns of Variation as Reported in Dialect Surveys Principle I: For stable sociolinguistic variables, men use a higher frequency of nonstandard forms than women. Principle I: For stable sociolinguistic variables, men use a higher frequency of nonstandard forms than women. –Principle Ia: In change from above [the level of consciousness], women favor the incoming prestige forms more than men. Principle II: In change from below, women are most often the innovators. Principle II: In change from below, women are most often the innovators. An apparent contradiction [that women are simultaneously more linguistically conservative and more innovative]?? An apparent contradiction [that women are simultaneously more linguistically conservative and more innovative]?? –sociolinguistic variables involved –social class of woman

7. 8.2 Explaining General Patterns: The Prestige-based Approach The Prestige-based Approach Labov: women are more prestige-conscious than men Labov: women are more prestige-conscious than men Trudgill: more on prestige— Trudgill: more on prestige— –Women transmit culture through childrearing –Women’s social position more insecure, so they attempt to signal social status linguistically –Women judged not by what they do, but by how they appear (linguistic “cosmetic” of prestigious language) –Women avoid vernacular forms associated with “masculinity” in symbolic value PROBLEMS: studies that provide contradictory evidence

8. 8.3 Localized Expressions of Gender Relations Eckert: “because women have little power in most communities they seek to acquire such power in symbolic ways”: Eckert: “because women have little power in most communities they seek to acquire such power in symbolic ways”: –Standard language variants = power by association with the most powerful socioeconomic classes = “symbolic capital” –Innovative vernacular forms = symbolic membership in important local social groups COROLLARY: those who have the real power don’t need to worry about “symbolic” power

9. 8.4 Communities of Practice: Linking and Local and the Global How is individual behavior (the local) linked to larger social structures (the global)? How is individual behavior (the local) linked to larger social structures (the global)? Qualitative studies based on communities of practice involve in-depth analysis of the language use of individuals and small groups Qualitative studies based on communities of practice involve in-depth analysis of the language use of individuals and small groups Studies based on large-scale quantitative samples of language use by social category provide information on the “norms” that individuals orient to Studies based on large-scale quantitative samples of language use by social category provide information on the “norms” that individuals orient to “Although people may mix and match various linguistic features to project individualized or situationally specific meanings and identities, they cannot do so randomly, since linguistic features often derive their social meanings from association with particular groups, or particular situations of use.” (p. 247) “Although people may mix and match various linguistic features to project individualized or situationally specific meanings and identities, they cannot do so randomly, since linguistic features often derive their social meanings from association with particular groups, or particular situations of use.” (p. 247)

10. 8.5 Language-Use-based Approaches: The “Female Deficit” Approach Male speech as the “norm” Male speech as the “norm”

11. 8.6 The “Cultural Difference” Approach Boys and girls are socialized into different uses of language Boys and girls are socialized into different uses of language

12. 8.7 The “Dominance” Approach Men have the power in the society and exercise it (consciously or unconsciously) through their use of language Men have the power in the society and exercise it (consciously or unconsciously) through their use of language

13. 8.8 Further Implications Social roles Social roles Gender as social construct Gender as social construct Relation of gender to other social factors Relation of gender to other social factors More focus on men’s language More focus on men’s language The idea of meaning as context- dependent (i.e. certain language forms are not inherently “strong” or “weak”) The idea of meaning as context- dependent (i.e. certain language forms are not inherently “strong” or “weak”)

14. 8.9 Talking About Men and Women 8.9.1 Generic ‘he’ and ‘man’ 8.9.1 Generic ‘he’ and ‘man’ 8.9.2 Family names and terms of address 8.9.2 Family names and terms of address 8.9.3 Relationships of association 8.9.3 Relationships of association 8.9.4 Labeling 8.9.4 Labeling

15. 8.10 The Question of Language Reform Alternatives to “he or she” Alternatives to “he or she” Alternatives to generics Alternatives to generics Avoidance of sexual stereotyping Avoidance of sexual stereotyping