Table of Contents Section 1 Carbon Compounds Biochemistry Table of Contents Section 1 Carbon Compounds Section 2 Molecules of Life

Student Learning Goals – Macromolecules Goal: Describe the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. Students will: 4 – Describe the significance and importance of the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. 3 - Describe the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. 2 – Explain the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. 1 – Recognize the four major categories of biological macromolecules.

Objectives Carbon Compounds Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds. Explain the importance of carbon bonding in biological molecules. Summarize how large carbon molecules are synthesized and broken down. Describe how the breaking down of ATP supplies energy to drive chemical reactions.

Carbon Bonding (add this to your notes) Carbon Compounds Carbon Bonding (add this to your notes) Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon atoms. Are found in nonliving things

Carbon Bonding (add this to your notes) Organic compounds contain carbon atoms and are found in living things. Contain C atoms in their cmpds Produced by living plants & animals Can also be made in a lab (synthetically)

Carbon Bonding Living organisms are made up of molecules that consist of Carbon and other elements such as H and O

Carbon bonding Carbon atoms can readily form four covalent bonds with other atoms including other carbon atoms. (THIS MAKES “C” UNIQUE TO OTHER ELEMENTS!) The carbon bonds allow the carbon atoms to form a wide variety of simple and complex organic compounds.

Carbon bonding Carbon atoms can readily form four covalent bonds with other atoms including other carbon atoms. The more bonds between molecules, the stronger the bond to hold the cmpd together

Carbon bonding These kinds of bonding occur through covalent bonding (sharing of e-’s); In the forms of single, double, or triple bonds The more bonds between molecules, the stronger the bond to hold the cmpd together Energy is stored between these bonds

Carbon Compounds Carbon Bonding

For example: Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose Carbon Compounds Large Carbon Molecules Many C cmpds are built from smaller, simpler molecules Monomers - simple C based molecules Can bond in long chain - Can bond to one another creating a 6 sided ring For example: Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose Polymers – molecules made of repeatedly linked units

Carbon Compounds Energy Currency Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores and releases energy during cell processes, enabling organisms to function.

ATP – How It Works ATP works by losing the endmost phosphate group Instructed to do so by an enzyme This reaction releases a lot of energy The organism can then use the energy to build proteins, contact muscles, etc. The reaction product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ADP can then be further reduced to AMP for the purpose of providing more energy to run reactions

Carbon Compounds Comparing ADP and ATP

Carbon Compounds Energy Currency Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores and releases energy during cell processes, enabling organisms to function. REMEMBER: Every time a bond in ATP breaks, energy is released and the molecule is reduced to ADP. Keep in mind – ADP can also join an addition Phosphate group to convert to ATP

Objectives Molecules of Life Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides,and polysaccharides. Explain the relationship between amino acids and protein structure. Describe the induced fit model of enzyme action. Compare the structure and function of each of the different types of lipids. Compare the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

Molecules of Life Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom. Most macromolecules are formed by a process known as polymerization, in which large compounds are built by joining smaller ones together.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are a source of energy and are used as structural materials in organisms. The general formula for a monosaccharide is CH2O 1:2:1 ratio

Carbohydrates con’t Monosaccharides Carbohydrates are made up of monomers called monosaccharides. Ex: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose (ALL structured in a 1:2:1 ratio, but the molecules are arranged differently) Glucose – main energy supply for cells Fructose – found in fruits & is the sweetest of the simple sugars Galactose – found in milk

Carbohydrates con’t Glucose, fructose and galactose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), but have structural differences, resulting in different properties among the 3 cmpds.

Carbohydrates con’t When 2 monosaccharide molecules are chemically joined, a double sugar or disaccharide is formed As the 2 molecules join, a molecule of H2O is produced during the process in addition to the double sugar

Molecules of Life Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, continued Molecules of Life Carbohydrates, continued Monosaccharides (saccharide = SUGAR) Carbohydrates are made up of monomers called monosaccharides.

Carbohydrates, continued Molecules of Life Carbohydrates, continued Disaccharides and Polysaccharides Two monosaccharides join to form a double sugar called a disaccharide. A complex sugar, or polysaccharide, is made of three or more monosaccharides. Ex: Fructose + Glucose → Sucrose (mono) (mono) (disaccharide)

Molecules of Life Disaccharides

Polysaccharides Animals store glucose in the form of the disaccharide, glycogen Glycogen – hundreds of glucose molecules linked together Glucose comes from food that is stored in the liver & in muscles as glycogen to be used for quick energy

Polysaccharides con’t Plants make a large polysaccharide called cellulose Cellulose gives strength and rigidity to plant cells; making up 50% of wood

To summarize……

Large Carbon Molecules Carbon Compounds Large Carbon Molecules Many C cmpds are built from smaller, simpler molecules Monomers - simple C based molecules - Can bond in long chain - Can bond to one another creating a 6 sided ring - Can be combined to form a more complex molecule For example: Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose (simple sugar) + (simple sugar) → (more complex sugar) (disaccharide)

Macromolecules Many of the organic compounds in living cells are macromolecules, or “giant molecules,” made from thousands or even hundreds of thousands of smaller molecules. Most macromolecules are formed by a process known as polymerization, in which large compounds are built by joining smaller ones together.

Macromolecules The smaller units, or monomers, join together to form polymers. The monomers in a polymer may be identical or different.

Large Carbon Molecules Likewise, more complex sugars can be broken down to more simple sugars Sucrose → Fructose + Glucose (more complex sugar) → (simple sugar) + (simple sugar) Polymers – molecules made of repeatedly linked units (polymerization) ie: cellulose Cellulose - a long chain of linked sugar molecules that gives wood strength. It is also the main component of plant cell walls, and the basic building block for many textiles like paper.

PROTEINS

Molecules of Life Proteins Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. Proteins have many functions including structural, immune or defensive, and catalytic roles.

Amino Acids Amino Acids Molecules of Life Amino Acids Amino Acids Proteins are made up of monomers called amino acids. (They are the building blocks of proteins) The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s shape and function There are 20 different amino acids

Amino acids con’t Amino acids all share the same basic structure, with the exception of the “R” group Each a.a has a central “C” group, carboxyl group, an amino group as part of their composition The “R” group is what makes each amino acids different

Amino acids con’t Each a.a. has a central “C” group, carboxyl group, an amino group, a single hydrogen + an “R” group

Chapter 3 Proteins, continued Dipeptides and Polypeptides Section 2 Molecules of Life Chapter 3 Proteins, continued Dipeptides and Polypeptides Two amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form a dipeptide. A long chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide.

Amino acids con’t Polypeptides are very long chains of a.a. Proteins are made of 1 or more polypeptide molecules Examples of structural functions of proteins: hair, skin & muscle

Section 2 Molecules of Life Chapter 3 Amino Acid

Molecules of Life Structure of Proteins

Energy and Chemical Reactions Reactants are substances that enter chemical reactions. Products are substances produced by chemical reactions.

LIPIDS

Molecules of Life Lipids Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy and are an important part of cell membranes. Lipids do not dissolve in water Ex: Triglycerides, phosphates, steroids, waxes and pigments

Lipids Lipids have a higher ratio of C, H & O than do carbohydrates Molecules of Life Lipids Lipids have a higher ratio of C, H & O than do carbohydrates Because lipid molecules have larger numbers of C-H bonds/g than any other organic compound, they store more energy/g

Molecules of Life Fats

Lipids, continued Fatty Acids Molecules of Life Lipids, continued Fatty Acids Most lipids contain fatty acids, unbranched carbon molecules. Both ends of the fatty acid molecule have different properties Carboxyl end = hydrophilic (attracts water) Hydrocarbon end = hydrophobic (water fearing)

Molecules of Life Fatty Acids

Lipids, continued Triglycerides Molecules of Life Lipids, continued Triglycerides Triglycerides consist of three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. Saturated triglycerides are made of saturated fatty acids High melting point hard or solid at room temperature Ex: butter, fat in red meat

Lipids con’t Triglycerides Unsaturated triglycerides are made of unsaturated fatty acids Found in plant seeds Serves as energy source

Lipids, continued Phospholipids Molecules of Life Lipids, continued Phospholipids Consists of 2 fatty acids & 1 glycerol molecule with a phosphate group attached to the third carbon (of the glycerol)

Lipids, continued Phospholipids Molecules of Life Lipids, continued Phospholipids Because the cell membrane is made of lipids (inability to dissolve in water) it forms a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell Make up cell membranes – made of 2 layers called the lipid bilayer

Lipids, continued Waxes Molecules of Life Lipids, continued Waxes A wax is made of one long fatty acid chain joined to one long alcohol.

Lipids, continued Waxes Molecules of Life Lipids, continued Waxes Useful in plants by forming a protective coating on the outer surfaces Useful in animals preventing microorganisms from entering the ear canal

Lipids con’t Steroids A steroid is composed of four fused carbon rings. Animal use: Male hormone, testosterone Cholesterol – needed by the body for nerve & other cells to function normally Is also a component of the cell membrane

Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) Molecules of Life Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) A nucleic acid is a large and complex organic molecule that stores and transports information. DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid Determines the characteristics of an organism Directs cell activity

Nucleic Acids RNA – ribonucleic acid Molecules of Life Nucleic Acids RNA – ribonucleic acid Stores & transfers information from DNA essential for manufacturing of proteins Can act as enzymes

Nucleic Acids, continued Molecules of Life Nucleic Acids, continued The nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains genetic information for cell activities. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules play many key roles in building of proteins and can act as enzymes.

Nucleic acids con’t Both DNA & RNA are polymers, made of thousands of linked monomers called nucleotides Nucleotides – 3 main components A phosphate group A 5 carbon sugar A ring shaped nitrogenous base EX: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine Example of a nucleotide = ATP

Structure of Nucleic Acids Molecules of Life Structure of Nucleic Acids

Molecules of Life Nucleic Acids

Molecules of Life DNA Overview

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Molecules of Life Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Energy and Chemical Reactions Section 2 Energy Energy and Chemical Reactions

Energy and Chemical Reactions, continued Activation Energy Enzymes lower the amount of activation energy necessary for a reaction to begin in living systems.

Enzymes are a type of protein Molecules of Life Enzymes are a type of protein Enzymes Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and bind to specific substrates. RNA or protein molecules can act as biological catalysts – critical for the functioning of cells The binding of a substrate with an enzyme causes a change in the enzyme’s shape and reduces the activation energy of the reaction.

Enzymes con’t The fit between the substrate and enzyme will dictate the enzyme reaction Enzymes have folds or active sites with a shape that allows the substrate to fit or link into the active site; (Similar to a key that fits a PARTICULAR ignition on a car engine.) After the reaction, the enzyme releases the product and remains unchanged

Enzymes con’t An enzyme may not work if an environment changes For ex: change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape of the enzyme or substrate If this occurs, the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur

Molecules of Life Enzyme Activity