Learning and Perception Chapter 4 Learning and Perception Michael A. Hitt C. Chet Miller Adrienne Colella

Knowledge Objectives Describe the effects on learning of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Discuss continuous and intermittent schedules of reinforcement. Explain how principles of learning can be used to train newcomers as well as to modify the behavior of existing associates. Describe the effects of limited opportunities to learn from experience.

Knowledge Objectives Describe the effects of unclear feedback and methods for handling such feedback. Discuss learning from failure. Identify typical problems in accurately perceiving others and solutions to these problems. Explain the complexities of causal attributions and task perception.

Fundamental Learning Principles A process through which individuals change their behavior based on positive or negative experiences in a situation Learning occurs only when changes in behavior happen (change is the essence of learning) Learning is driven by experience with a particular situation (learning is situationally specific)

Operant Conditioning/Social Learning Operant conditioning theory An explanation for consequence-based learning (behavior is learned as a function of its consequence) Social learning theory Humans can observe others in a situation and learn from what they see (humans do not need to directly experience a specific situation to understand a behavior and its consequences)

Contingencies of Reinforcement The situation Behavioral response Consequences of the behavior Positive consequences, or removal of negative ones, reinforces behavioral response Aversive consequences lead to avoidance of the same behavioral response, or to new responses to similar situations in the future New response to the situation Adapted from Exhibit 4-1: Effects of Reinforcing Consequences on Learning New Behaviors

Reinforcing Contingencies Reinforcement always refers to a contingent event that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations Positive reinforcement occurs when the behavior is followed by a positive consequence(s) Negative reinforcement occurs when the behavior is followed by the absence or withdrawal of a previous negative consequence(s)

Non-reinforcing Contingencies Non-reinforcing contingencies always refer to a contingent events that decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations Punishment occurs when the behavior is followed by a negative consequence Extinction occurs when a behavior is followed by the absence of positive consequences (and by definition of punishment, negative consequences)

Effects of Contingent Consequences Presence of a positive (Positive Reinforcement) Absence of positive/negative (Extinction) Positive Type of consequence involved Removal of a negative (Negative Reinforcement) Presence of a negative (Punishment) Negative Increased Decreased Likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous schedule—reinforcement follows each instance of desired behavior Intermittent schedule—reinforcement does not follow each instance of desired behavior Fixed interval—reinforcement based on fixed unit of lapsed time Variable interval—reinforcement based on varying lapses of time Fixed ratio—reinforcement based on consistent number of instances of the desired behavior Variable ratio—reinforcement after desired behavior has occurred a variable number of times Adapted from Exhibit 4-2: Schedules of Reinforcement

Training and Enhancing Performance Determine new behaviors to be learned Establish smaller, ordered units of new behavior Demonstrate or model desired behaviors to trainee Use contingent reinforcement for new behavior New job behaviors learned, performance improves Trainee practices new behavior in presence of trainer

OB Mod A formal procedure focused on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and extinction of undesired behaviors Exhibit 4-3 Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

Low Probability-High Consequence Events Experiencing a particular situation only once or not at all limits the opportunity to try different approaches (behaviors and consequences) for dealing with it If an approach cannot be used multiple times, one cannot learn the likelihood of positive or negative consequences of the approach Consequently people exposed to low probability-high consequence events may have faulty learning

Unclear Feedback Situations often involve multiple consequences, such that one cannot clearly infer how the individual consequences affect behavior Simulation may be an approach for separating out the effects of the consequences on the behavior A representation of a real system that allows associates and managers to try various actions and receive feedback on the consequences of those actions

Causal Relationships at a Sports Club Exhibit 4-4 Casual Relationships at a Sports Club

Intelligent Failure Intelligent failures that result in learning are the result of certain kinds of actions Actions are thoughtfully planned. Actions have a reasonable chance of producing a successful outcome. Actions are typically modest in scale, to avoid putting the entire firm or substantial parts of it at risk. Actions are executed and evaluated in a speedy fashion, since delayed feedback makes learning more difficult. Actions are limited to domains that are familiar enough to allow proper understanding of the effects of the actions.

Three Stages of Perception Perception: A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts 1 Sensing Stage 1: Sensing various characteristics of a person, task, or event Touch Sight Smell Taste Hearing

Three Stages of Perception Perception: A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts 1 Sensing Stage 2: Selecting from the data those facts that will be used to form the perception Selective or biased perception? Accurate perception requires selection of all relevant data 2 Selecting

Three Stages of Perception Perception: A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task, or event and forming impressions based on selected facts 1 Sensing Stage 3: Organizing the selected data into useful concepts pertaining to the object or person Concepts help individuals predict the consequences of their behaviors Formation of everyday concepts help people deal successfully with problems 2 Selecting 3 Organizing

Perception of the Person Perceptions of People Nature of Perceiver Familiarity with Person Feeling Toward Person General Emotion State Problems in Person Perception Logical Error Halo Effect Projecting Stereotyping Perception of the Person Nature of the Situation General Nature of the Other Person Apparent Intentions of the Other Person Consequences of the Interaction Adapted from Exhibit 4-5 Person Perception

Problems in Perception Logical error Individual forms an impression of a person on the basis of only one or two central characteristics Halo effect Individual assesses a person positively or negatively in all situations based on an existing general assessment of the person

Problems in Perception Projecting individual assumes that others share his or her values and beliefs Stereotyping Individual has preconceived ideas about a group and assumes that all members of that group share the same characteristics

Attributions of Causality Attributions affected by perceptions of Consistency Consensus Distinctiveness Internal attributions External attributions Personality Attitudes Abilities Organizational resources Luck Uncontrollable influences

Attributions of Causality High External Distinctiveness Low Internal High External Individual Behavior Consensus Low Internal High External Consistency Low Internal Adapted from Exhibit 4-6 Attribution Theory

Attributions of Success and Failure Fundamental attribution error Perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal rather than external causes Self-serving bias Perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the failure of others to internal causes and the successes of others to external causes

Task Perception Perceptions of one’s job has important implications for behavior and outcomes Task perceptions have been linked to mood, intrinsic motivation and job performance Perceptions of tasks develop through subjective and sometimes idiosyncratic processes