1. Chapter 4 Learning and Perception
Michael A. Hitt
C. Chet Miller
Adrienne Colella
Slides by Ralph R. Braithwaite

2. Learning at NUMMI
What are your thoughts on the peer pressure approach to teamwork and norms at NUMMI?
What would be your reaction to having a high-level manager from another part of the organization entering your workforce “undercover”? What would be the advantages and disadvantages?
Have you had any experiences similar to the learning at “the old plant” described in the scenario?
How might the approach to teams and employees in place at NUMMI work in other types of industries?
                             
                             
Exploring Behavior in Action

3. Knowledge Objectives
Describe the effects on learning of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Discuss continuous and intermittent schedules of reinforcement.
Explain how principles of learning can be used to train newcomers as well as to modify the behavior of existing associates.
Describe the conditions under which adults learn, in addition to rewards and punishments.
Describe some specific methods that organizations use to train associates.
Discuss learning from failure.
Identify typical problems in accurately perceiving others and solutions to these problems.
Explain the complexities of causal attributions and task perception.

4. Learning Relatively permanent change in capabilities
Process of behavior change based on positive or negative experiences
Occurs only when changes in behavior happen
Driven by experience with a particular situation
Learning – a process through which individuals change their behavior based on positive or negative experiences in a situation

5. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement based
Behavior is learned as a function of its consequence
Roots in the late 1800s with animals
Learning results from simple conditioning, not from higher mental functioning
B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist, emphasized conditioning in people
Operation conditioning theory – an explanation for consequence-based learning that assumes learning results from simple conditioning and that higher mental functioning is irrelevant

6. Social Learning
Humans can observe others in a situation and learn from what they see
No direct experience to a specific situation is needed to understand the behavior and its consequences
Learning can result from higher mental functioning
Albert Bandura
Social learning theory – an explanation for consequence-based learning that acknowledges the higher mental functioning of human beings and the role such functioning can play in learning

7. Contingencies of Reinforcement
Situation
Behavioral Response
Consequences of Behavior
Situation – sometimes referred to as the stimulus situation
Behavioral response – the response of the associate or manager to the situation
Consequences – the result of the response for the associate or manager

8. Contingencies of Reinforcement
The Situation
Behavioral Response
Consequences of the Behavior
Positive consequences, or removal of negative ones, reinforces behavioral response
New Response to the Situation
Aversive consequences lead to avoidance of the same behavioral response, or to new responses to similar situations in the future
Adapted from Exhibit 4-1: Effects of Reinforcing Consequences on Learning New Behaviors

9. Reinforcing Contingencies
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Reinforcement always refers to a contingent event that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Positive reinforcement occurs when the behavior is followed by a positive consequence(s)
Negative reinforcement occurs when the behavior is followed by the absence or withdrawal of a previous negative consequence(s)

10. Non-Reinforcing Contingencies
Non-reinforcing contingencies always refer to contingent events that decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Punishment
Extinction
R.I.P.
Non-reinforcing contingencies always refer to contingent events that decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Punishment – a reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by a negative consequence, thereby reducing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations
Extinction - a reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by the absence of a previously encountered positive consequence (and by definition of punishment, negative consequences), thereby reducing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the same or similar situations. The behavior eventually disappears.

11. Punishment Guidelines
Use only if necessary
Deliver as quickly as possible after the undesired event
Focus on specific behaviors that have been made clear to the recipient
Deliver in an objective, impersonal fashion
Listen to the person before taking action

12. Punishment Taken Too Far
Managerial Advice
Punishment Taken Too Far
Thoughts about the “obey or else” environment in the cockpit?
What changes would you recommend to improve the working relationships and reduce potential accidents?
What has been your experience with an environment such as this one?

13. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous
Intermittent
Continuous reinforcement – a reinforcement schedule in which a reward occurs after each instance of a behavior or set of behaviors
Intermittent reinforcement – a reinforcement schedule in which a reward does not occur after each instance of a behavior or set of behaviors

14. Intermittent Reinforcement
What should I use?
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio or
Variable ratio
Fixed interval - reinforcement based on fixed unit of lapsed time
Variable interval - reinforcement based on varying lapses of time
Fixed ratio - reinforcement based on consistent number of instances of the desired behavior
Variable ratio - reinforcement after desired behavior has occurred a variable number of times

15. Examples Fixed Interval Variable Interval Variable Ratio Fixed Ratio
Calling a radio station once a week for a chance to win a prize
Variable Interval
Pressing the "redial" button when you keep getting a "busy" signal
Examples
Variable Ratio
Betting on specific numbers on a roulette wheel
Fixed Ratio
Car salesperson gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold

16. Social Learning Theory
Symbolization and Forethought
Observation
Self-Efficacy
Symbolization and Forethought – people have the ability to symbolize events and to anticipate consequences – a person can try out various scenarios in his or her mind and imagine the consequences of the behavior
Observation – associates can observe the behavior of others and the results of that behavior to enable them to learn
Self-Efficacy – an individual’s belief that he or she will be able to perform a specific task in a given situation

17. Other Conditions for Learning
Associates need to know why they are learning what they are learning
Associates need to use their own experiences as the basis for learning
Associates need to practice what they have learned
Associates need feedback

18. Training and Enhancing Performance
Determine new behaviors to be learned
Break new behavior into smaller, logical segments
Demonstrate desired behaviors to trainee
Use contingent reinforcement for
new behavior
New job behaviors learned, performance improves
Trainee practices new behavior

19. Organizational Behavior Mod
Also known as performance management, a formal procedure that focuses on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and elimination of undesired behaviors
OB Mod – a formal procedure focused on improving task performance through positive reinforcement of desired behaviors and extinction of undesired behaviors

20. OB Mod Part 1
Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

21. OB Mod Part 2
Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

22. OB Mod Part 3
Adapted from Exhibit 4-3: Shaping Behavior Through OB Modification

23. Curling Club General Manager
Simulations
Team Leader’s Pizza
What factors might have contributed to the reaction of the two situations described in the chapter?
Suggestions for the two leaders?
Curling Club General Manager
A simulation mimics the real system but allows us to take one action at a time to understand its effects and consequences.
Simulation – a representation of a real system that allows associates and managers to try various actions and receive feedback on the consequences of those actions

24. Causal Relationships
Exhibit 4-4: Casual Relationships at a Sports Club

25. Learning from Failure
“A failure that does not result in learning is a mistake: a failure that results in learning is an intelligent failure.”
Thoughts?

26. Intelligent Failures Results of certain actions: Thoughtfully planned
Reasonable chance of success
Typical modest in scale
Executed and evaluated in a speedy fashion
Limited to familiar domains
Examples

27. “We Are Ladies and Gentlemen Serving Ladies and Gentlemen”
What are your thoughts about the Ritz-Carlton’s approach to customers?
Is all the training (310 hours in the first year) they do necessary?
What types of training programs exist in the places you have worked?
WOW!
Wow has sound and comes in after one second. Questions come in one at a time on mouse click.
Experiencing Strategic OB

28. Perception
A process that involves sensing various aspects of a person, task or event and forming impressions based on selected inputs.
Three basic stages:
Sensing various characteristics
Selecting facts
Organizing into useful concepts
Sensing various characteristics – of a person, task, or event – this stage consists of using the senses (touch, sight, smell, etc.) to obtain data.
Selecting facts – from the data those facts will be used to form perception. An individual does not necessarily use all the data that he or she senses. Be careful of information overload.
Organizing into useful concepts – put the selected data into useful concepts pertaining to the object or person. An individual must order and sort data in a way that is useful in establishing approaches to dealing with the world.

29. Perception
Need a volunteer to read what I am about to show on the screen.
Look at the list below and say the color, not the word as fast as you can.
RED GREEN PURPLE BLUE ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BROWN RED PURPLE YELLOW BLUE ORANGE GREEN BLACK RED PURPLE ORANGE

30. Perception That was pretty fast. Can anyone do it faster.
I need another volunteer.

31. Perception
Look at the list below and say the color, not the word as fast as you can.
RED GREEN PURPLE BLUE ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BROWN RED PURPLE YELLOW BLUE ORANGE GREEN BLACK RED PURPLE ORANGE

32. Perception Why did the second reading of the colors take longer?
The right side of the brain tries to say the color but the left side of the brain insists on reading the word.

33. Perception of the Person
Perceptions of People
Nature of Perceiver
Familiarity with the Other Person
Feelings Toward the Other Person
General Emotion State
Problems in
Person Perception
Implicit Theories
Halo Effect
Projecting
Stereotyping
Perception of the Person
Nature of the Situation
General Nature of the Other Person
Apparent Intentions of the Other Person
Consequences of the Interaction
Implicit person theories – personal theories about what personality traits and abilities occur together and how these attributes are manifested in behavior
Halo effect – a perception problem in which an individual assesses a person positively or negatively (sometimes called the horns effect) in all situations based on an existing general assessment of the person
Projecting – a perception problem in which an individual assumes that others share his or her values and beliefs
Stereotyping – a perception problem in which an individual has preconceived ideas about a group and assumes that all members of that group share the same characteristics
Adapted from Exhibit 4-5: Person Perception

34. “Beauty Is Only Skin Deep” – Or Is It?
Christine Craft
Should attractiveness be one of the considerations for hiring someone?
Thoughts on whether or not attractive people are perceived to be smarter, more confident, and more likeable.
What can be done to overcome some of the perceptual biases that exist in the workplace?
Experiencing Strategic OB

35. Self-Perception
Individuals who see themselves as highly competent are likely to try new approaches to tasks and perhaps be more productive than their peers. Self-confidence is a powerful force.

36. Internal-External Attribution
Consistency
Consensus
Consistency – the extent to which the same person behaves in the same manner in the same situation over time
Consensus – the degree to which other people in the same situation behave in the same manner
Distinctiveness – the degree to which the same person tends to behave differently in other situations
Distinctiveness

37. Attributions of Causality
Individual Behavior
Consensus
Consistency
Distinctiveness
External
Internal
High
Low
Adapted from Exhibit 4.6 Attribution Theory

38. Attributions of Success and Failure
Fundamental Attribution Error
Self-Serving Bias
Fundamental attribution error - Perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal rather than external causes
Self-serving bias - Perception problem in which an individual is too likely to attribute the failure of others to internal causes and the successes of others to external causes

39. Task Perception
Perceptions of tasks develop through subjective and sometimes idiosyncratic processes
Intelligence, age and gender influence perception of tasks
Levels of satisfaction play a role

40. The Strategic Lens
How does the knowledge held by managers and associates affect the performance of an organization?
What are some important ways in which associates can learn and thereby enhance their stock of knowledge? What role does perception play in the learning process?
What are the connections between learning, perception, and organizational strategies?
Bill Breen

41. Questions