1. Chapter 3 Perception and Learning
Semester 322, Spring 2012
Instructor: Dr Nailah Ayub

2. Social Perception
Process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information to gain an understanding
Process by which people judge and understand people and things with which they come into contact
Combine various knowledge into a meaningful picture (the more the knowledge, the better equipped one is)
Automatic and almost always happening

3. Social Identity Defining characteristic of an individual
Personal identity
Social identity

4. Social Identity Theory
How we perceive in terms of personal or social identity
Based on our uniqueness in a group
Identity is pronounced within a particular situation
People naturally want to be seen positively and so they identify with a group perceived to have positive characteristics
we focus on differences from others- and see others as more (Exaggeratedly) negatively

5. Attribution Process
Process of judging underlying causes of others’ behavior
We attempt to get at least two types of information
What is someone really like? (traits)
What accounted for one’s action?
What is someone really like: The judgments we make about someone is like based on what we have observed about him/her are known as correspondent inferences

6. Correspondent Inferences Figure 3.3
Attribution Process
Correspondent Inferences Figure 3.3
Challenges for accuracy
Behavior may be shaped by external forces
People tend to conceal traits (disguise the negatives)

7. Making accurate correspondent inferences
Focus on behaviors in situations in which they do not have to behave in a socially acceptable manner
Focus on behavior for which there appears to be only a single logical explanation
Causal attribution of RESPONSIBILITY
Internal causes of behavior
External causes of behavior

8. Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution
Consensus: extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the person being judged
Consistency: extent to which the person judged acts the same way at other times.
Distinctiveness: extent to which a person behaves in the same manner in other contexts.
Externally caused behavior- high consensus, high consistency, high distinctiveness
Internally caused behavior- low consensus, high consistency, low distinctiveness

9. Causal Attribution (Kelley’s theory)

10. Perceptual Biases- Systematic errors in perceptions
Fundamental Attribution Error: explain other’s behavior in terms of internal causes rather than external causes.
The Halo Effect: maintain persistency in viewing things the same way once an impression is formed
Team Halo Effect: tendency to credit teams for their success but not to hold them accountable for failures
Similar-to-Me Effect: If you are like me, you must be good
Selective Perception: tendency to focus on certain aspects of environment and ignore others

11. Perceptual Biases
Halo Effect

12. Perceptual Biases
First Impression Error- confirm one’s expectations (halo effect?)

13. Perceptual Biases
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Perceptions influence reality
Pygmalion effect: holding high expectations tend to improve performance
Golem effect: holding low expectations lowers performance

16. Perceptual Biases
Stereotyping: belief that all members share similar traits and will behave in the same way
Mental shortcuts; efficient
Danger of stereotyping:
Negative organizational impact- Inaccurate information
Negative individual impact- Stereotype threat

17. Perceptions: Organizational Applications
Rebound Effect: making information hyper-accessible
Impression Management: Efforts to improve how one appears

19. Perceptions: Organizational Applications
Performance Appraisal: formal judgments about job performance
Inherently biased process- initial expectations; similar-to-me effect; internal attribution
Corporate Image: Impression Management by organizations
Positive image: favored by consumers; avoids boycotts
Attracts best employee candidates
Communicating corporate images
news from other people
Proactive steps: recruitment ads; annual reports

20. Part 2: Learning A relatively permanent change
As a result of experience
Through continued contact with the world around
Learning cannot be observed directly
Several different kinds of learning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning

21. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Skinner: connections between actions and consequences
Behavior produces consequences and we repeat behavior depending on those consequences, strengthen the desirable and weaken the undesirable (Law of Effect)
Figure 3.12

22. Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement Contingencies: Behavior is repeated for desirable outcomes that are associated with the behavior
Table 3.4

23. Reinforcement Schedules Administering Rewards
Continuous reinforcement
Partial reinforcement (intermittent)
Interval
Fixed interval schedules
Variable interval schedules
Ratio
Fixed ratio schedules
Variable ratio schedules

24. Observational Learning
Systematically observing others- Vicarious learning
Person whose behavior is imitated is the model
Process (Steps) of observational learning

25. Training- Developing Job Skills
Training: Systematically acquire and improve the job-related skills.
Varieties of Training
Classroom Training: Instructor and opportunities to practice
Apprenticeship Programs: Classroom and on-the-job training over a long period of time
Cross-Cultural Training: Systematic way of preparing for work in another country
Corporate Universities: Centers for company’s training needs on a full-time basis
Executive Training Programs: Systematically develop top leaders by in-house training with outside experts or going out.
E-Training: Disseminating information online
Benefits: flexibility, speed and efficiency, reduced cost
Problems: Costly to produce self-paced materials, loss of social aspect of learning- the one-on-one experience

26. Keys to Effective Training
Participation: active involvement
Repetition: practice and repeat
Transfer of Training: generalize and apply
Feedback: knowledge of results/outcomes

27. Organizational Behavior Management
OB Management- OB Mod
Problems of absenteeism, lateness, theft, substance abuse
Improve output, reduced quality-related errors, reduced grievances and time lost due to accident, and happier workforce
Discipline: Eliminating undesirable behavior
Systematic administration of punishment
Disciplinary Practices- Progressive Discipline (gradually increasing severity)

28. Disciplinary Measures Continuum

29. Effective Discipline
Deliver Punishment Immediately After Undesirable Response.
Give Moderate Levels of Punishment.
Punish Undesirable Behavior, Not Person.
Use Punishment Consistently Across Occasions.
Punish Everyone Equally for Same Infraction.
Clearly Communicate Reasons for Punishment.
Do Not Follow Punishment with Noncontingent Rewards.