Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Born in Stagira, an Athenian colony in Macedonia (Aristotle was never an Athenian citizen)  foreigner Cosmopolitan perspective Upper-middle class background, his father was the physician of the Macedonian court. At 17, moved to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy Tutor of Macedonian Alexander Organized his own academy in Athens, the Lyceeum (survived for 500 years) After Alexander’s death (323 B.C.) Aristotle had to go into exile and died the following year in Chalcis.

Foundational work in diverse disciplines Biology, zoology (identified 500 species), physics, medicine, psychology, logic, metaphysics, rhetorics, aesthetics, ethics, politics (all of these subjects were taught in the Lyceeum) Politics Political theory Comparative government (Aristotle is the first comparativist—study of 158 constitutions)

Works: Only a fraction of his work survives Compiled in 150 volumes Exoteric/Esoteric (not intended for publication… lecture notes) Includes The Athenian Constitution, On Dreams, Physics, Metaphysics, Poetics, Politics, Nicomachean Ethics, Rhetorics… Politics (8 books) http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html

Human Knowledge

Similarities/Differences with Plato?

Best Ideal form of government (kingship) Plato Aristotle Best Ideal form of government (kingship) Best ideal (kingship or aristocracy) and existent (polity) forms of governments Rationalism (deduction) Comparative method Forms/Ideas Substance/categories Nature (fixed) (realization of) nature Comprehensive understanding of constitution Constitution: “arrangement of magistracies in a state” (100) Happiness as a quality of the whole Happiness: “realization and perfect practice of virtue” (97) Critique of property and the family Property is good (and the familiy is necessary) -- equalization Rule of the best Rule according to law Other…?

Nature Species (fixed #) Teleology: “…the nature of a thing is its end.” Potency Realization How and where is human nature fully developed? Why?

The State = Organic Whole Man as a political animal  What distinguishes the state from all other communities? How is state rule different from master/slave domination?

The Good Life = Happiness … Is the virtuous life. The practice of virtue requires being “furnished with means.” (88) Practicing virtue allows human beings to become what they are, to realize their essence. Speech and action (in the Polis) Good man ≠ good citizen Activities that allow men to realize their nature: art, science, prudence, wisdom, and intuition. “The political sciences are species of prudence.”

Functions of the State (services the state must provide) (98) Food Arts Arms Revenue Religion Power of deciding Justice “…a state exists for the sake of a good life, and not for the sake of life only…”

Life & the state Zoē Vs. Bios Mere Life the Good Life (or Bare Life) “…it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man is by nature a political animal. And he who by nature and not by mere accident is without a state, is either a bad man or above humanity; he is like the Tribeless, lawless, heartless one Whom Homer denounces—the natural outcast is forthwith a lover of war; he may be compared to an isolated piece at draughts.” (86) Zoē Vs. Bios Mere Life the Good Life (or Bare Life) (voice) (speech) Parts /Necessary conditions

Ontology God Being Natural hierarchy of beings (fixed)… Scale of Being Angels Man (female, slave) Animals Plants Minerals Non-Being

Different Beings Citizens Slaves: no speech

“…governments differ in kind…” Goal # Pursuing the common interest (true) Pursuing private interest (perversions) One Kingship Tyranny Few Aristocracy Oligarchy Many Constitutional Government (olygarchy + democracy) Democracy

Cycle 

Best and Worst Forms Kingship (the best regime, ideally) Tyranny Aristocracy Oligarchy Constitution/Polity (the best regime for most existent societies) Democracy (the most tolerable of the degenerate forms)

Is Aristotle’s ontology still dominant these days? Is politics in the West founded upon these distinctions? Are all beings equally worthy, or some forms of life amount for only “mere life”? Are these distinctions still made among human beings? Is this a good or bad understanding of human nature?

Categories Substance (fundamental entities) Quality Quantity Relation Where When Position Having Action Passion Redeveloped by Kant in the 18th century