Psychological Development: from Infant to Adult

1915 In a new edition of Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, Freud adds a section outlining his theory of psychosexual development.

What is Psychosexual Development? Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of six.

The Oral Stage Age Range: Birth to 1 Year Erogenous Zone: Mouth Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

The Anal Stage Age Range: 1 to 3 years Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.

The Phallic Stage Age Range: 3 to 6 Years Erogenous Zone: Genitals At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.

The Latent Period Age Range: 6 to Puberty Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

The Genital Stage Age Range: Puberty to Death Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

1930s Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning emphasizes the importance of the community in learning and development.

Sociocultural Approach Vygotsky believed that we develop understanding and expertise primarily through what might be described as apprenticeship. He also distinguished between two levels of cognitive development: the child’s actual level of development and the child’s potential level of development.

1936 Jean Piaget suggested that cognitive processes develop in a series of well-defined stages through childhood.

Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development The Sensorimotor stage The Preoperational stage The Concrete operational stage The Formal operational stage

1950 Eric Erikson publishes Childhood and Society, which includes an exposition of the eight stages of psychological development.

Hope Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year) The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child.

Will Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years) Main Question: "Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?"

Purpose Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years) Main Question: "Am I good or am I bad?" During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles.

Competence Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years) Main Question: "Am I successful or worthless?" Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals.

Fidelity Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years) Main Question: "Who am I and where am I going?"

Love Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years) Main Question: "Am I loved and wanted?" or "Shall I share my life with someone or live alone?"

Care Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years) Main Question: "Will I produce something of real value?"

Wisdom Ego Integrity vs. Despair Main Question: "Have I lived a full life?"

1958-1960 John Bowlby publishes a series of articles rejecting psychoanalytic and behavioural theories of attachment.

Attachment … … is used to describe an infant’s tendency to seek closeness to particular people and to feel more secure in their presence.

1959 Harry Harlow carries out experiments on monkeys providing that contact comfort is more important than the provision of food in forming attachments.

The Wire Mother Experiment Harlow’s most famous experiment involved giving young rhesus monkeys a choice between two different "mothers." One was made of soft terrycloth, but provided no food. The other was made of wire, but provided food from an attached baby bottle.

1970 Mary Ainsworth explores types of attachment in her Strange Situation studies.

Categories of babies Securely attached Insecurely attached: avoidant Insecurely attached: ambivalent Disorganised

1971 Lawrence Kohlberg identifies six stages of moral growth in Stages of Moral Development.

1974 Eleanor Maccoby conducts a study into gender differences in The Psychology of Sex Differences.

1991 Jerome Bruner explores the way the developing mind structures its sense of reality in The Narrative Construction of Reality.

1995 Simon Baron-Cohen publishes Mindblindness, exploring the implications of growing up with autism.