Chapter 26 Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, The Islamic Heartlands, and Qing China World Civilizations Stearns 4th ed. (Condensed and in a Hurry) Submitted by Alan Whitehead, White Station High School Memphis, Tn

From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey By the early 1700s the Ottoman Empire was in decline. Weak rulers led to power struggles between officials, religious experts, and Janissaries. There was lack of effective leaderdhip.

From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey Competition with the west and decentralization weakened the economy. The Ottomans were pushed from all their Balkan territories by the 1870s.

From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey The main reason they survived is decentralization in and aid from Europe.

Reform and Survival Sultan Selim III believed in bolder initiatives, like improving bureaucratic effeciency and building a more powerful navy and army, which angered the elite.

Reform and Survival Mahmud continued where Selim failed. He built a small professional army and ordered the death of all of the Janissaries. Mahmud patterned his reforms on Western standards, like rail lines and telegraph systems.

Reform and Survival Newspapers, legal reforms and a new constitution gave the minorities a higher position The Reforms strengthened the state, but the Sultanate was a barrier to more reforms.

Repression and Revolt They also clashed with the conservative ulama and ayan. Sultan Abdul Hamid responded by trying to return to despotism.

Abdul Hamid

Repression and Revolt He nullified the constitution and restricted civil liberties, but he continued military and educational reform, as well as a railway and telegraph construction. He was removed by the Ottoman Society for Union and Progress. (the Young Turks)

Repression and Revolt The Young Turks wanted to restore the 1896 constitution. It and other civil liberties were restored in a regime directed by a figurehead sultanate.

Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands The steadily diminishing capacity of the Ottomans to defend the Arab peoples of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, coastal Arabia, and north Africa left them at risk of conquest of the aggressive European powers.

Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands The Muslims were replaced by the West as the superior civilization. Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt sent shock waves throughout the Islamic world. He was met by tens of thousands of cavalry intent on defending the Malmuks.

Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt A series of crushing defeats showed how far behind the Muslims were. Fortunately for Egypt, Napoleon had to return to Paris. Muhamad Ali became Egypt’s new ruler and devoted his energies to building an up to date fighting force.

Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt He ordered the Egyptian peasantry to increase their production of crops that were in growing demand in industrial Europe. The limited scope of Muhammad Ali’s reforms ultimately checked his plans for territorial expansion.

Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance Muhammad Ali’s successors (khedives) made a mess of his efforts to reform and revitalize Egyptian society. Egypt became dependent on cotton as a single export.

Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance The completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Egypt into one of the most strategic places on the Earth. It became a vital commercial and military link.

Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance The debts of the khedives and the growing importance of the canal gave European powers a growing stake in the stability and accessibility of Egypt.

Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance Ahmad Orabi rose in the ranks of the khedival army and was increasingly critical of the fact that the official corps were dominated by Turks with strong ties to the khedives.

Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance Orabi led a revolt in 1882 that drove the frightened khedives to seek British assistance. The British intervention began decades of dominance by both British consuls and advisors, which led to direct foreign control on the Islamic world.

Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan Egyptian efforts to conquer and rule the Sudan, beginning in the 1820s, were fiercely resisted. The sedentary people who worked along the fertile strip of land along the river were more easily dominated.

Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan Khartoum became the center of Egyptian administration in the Sudan. The Egyptian regime was notoriously corrupt and its taxes placed a heavy burden on the peasants.

Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan Egyptian oppression and British intervention had aroused deep resentment and hostility. Muhammad Achmad proved to a leader that would unite the people of the region and provide an ideology that would give focus and meaning to rebellion.

Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan Achmad became accepted as a divinely appointed leader of revolt against foreign intruders. He promised to purge Islam as what he saw as superstitious beliefs and degrading practices. He gained control of present day Sudan.

Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan Islamic religious and ritual practices were enforced. Most foreigners were imprisoned or expelled. The ban on slavery was lifted. The Mahdist armies attacked or threatened all neighboring regions.

Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan General Kitchner defeated the Mahdist and British power advanced in Africa. The Islamic world grew anxious, for Europe had become master of the world.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China Chinese society was crumbling from within. By the 1700s, there was rampant corruption and severe economic dislocations.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The Western powers took advantage of China’s situation to open China’s markets, humiliate its military defenders, and reduce the rulers to little more than puppets. Manchu nomads, led by Nurhaci, invaded China.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The Manchus were called upon to help the emperor quell a rebellion. The Manchus passed the Great Wall and took Beijing. Under their rule, they forced tribute from Vietnam and Burma.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The Qing dynasty began and controlled an area larger than any previous dynasty except the Tang. There were few limits to how high ethnic chinese could rise in the imperial bureacracy.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The Manchus retained control through Confucianism. The emperor Kangxi was a significant Confucian scholar in his own right.

Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of the Qing rule The Manchu determination to preserve much of the Chinese political system was paralleled by an equally conservative approach to Chinese society as a whole. Values such as respect for rank and hierarchy were emphasized.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The lives of women at all social levels remained centered on the household and domestic duties. Male control was enhanced by choosing brides from slightly lower social ranks.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The Manchus spent much effort alleviating rural distress. Taxes and state labor demands were lowered. They had little success controlling the landlord class.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The gap between the rural gentry and ordinary peasants and laborers increased.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The commercial and urban expansion that had begun in the Song era gained new strength. China gained great wealth from the export of tea, porcelain, and silk.

The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China The compradors, a wealthy new group of merchants, specialized in import-export trade on China’s south coast. These merchants proved to be a key link between China and the outside world.

Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration The foundations of the bureaucracy were becoming Weak. The exams were plagued with cheating and favoritism. The bureaucracy considered the peasant laborers less and less.

Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration Public works projects were disregarded due to lack of funds. For instance, leaking dikes when the Huanghe flooded led to thoudands of peasant deaths from starvation and disease.

Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After The Manchu rulers and their Chinese administrators treated the Europeans much like the nomads an others they saw as barbarians. The scientific and industrial revolutions allowed the Europeans to compensate for their smaller numbers with better organization and technology.

Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After Due to China’s disintrest in European goods, the British had to trade using silver bullion. They found out that the Chinese would trade for Indian opium. The Chinese realized this as a threat, and the Opium war began.

Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After Increasing amounts of China’s trade went towards opium. From the early 1700s edicts were issued to outlaw opium, but they weren’t enforced. Lin Zexu tried to completely stop the opium trade and had the opium warehouses destroyed.

Opium Warehouse

Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After European powers forced China to open trade and diplomatic exchanges. The drug poured into China because the British battleships and customs overseers gave the Chinese little choice.

A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reform Massive rebellions threatened to overthrow China. Hong Xiuquan led the Taiping Rebellion, the first to pose a serious threat to Qing China and Confucian civilization.

A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reform Taipings offered sweeping social reforms, land redistribution, and the liberation of women. The provincial gentry became the focus of the Taipings. China’s self-strengthening movement aimed at countering the challenge from the west.

A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reform The Manchu rejected reforms that were their only hope of saving their regime. The Boxer Rebellion erupted in 1898 and was put down only because of intervention of the imperialist powers.

The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization? Underground organizations inspired many local uprisings against the dynasty in the late 1800s. Some secret society cells became a valuable training ground for a new sort of resistance to the Manchus.

The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization? In 1912 Puyi, the last Chinese emperor, was deposed. The revolution in 1911 had toppled the Qing dynasty. In 1905 the civil service exams were given for the last time.

The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization? The abandonment of the exams signaled the end of a pattern of civilized life that the Chinese had nurtured for nearly 2500 years. Many of these hallmarks of the most enduring civilization that has ever existed were violently destroyed.