Unit 1: Chapter 2: Psychological Research Methods and Statistics

Section1: What is Research? Jane Goodall’s Research

Before You Conduct Research You Must… 1. Ask a question OR State the PURPOSE of the research. 2. Find a sample of the overall population that you will be observing or using for the experiment. Sample: a small group out of the TOTAL population under study Example : You are interested in studying the endurance level of year old males in Scotland who run marathons at least once a year. There are 225 males in Scotland who are years old and run marathons at least once a year. For your research you decide to recruit 30 of them to participate in your study.

Different Types of Samples:  Random sample : sampling a total population in a way that everyone in the total population has an equal chance of being represented.  Example: placing everyone’s name in a container, and draw names.  Stratified sample : sampling a total population in a way that subgroups are represented proportionately.  Example: Since you want 30 male marathon runners from Scotland in the age range of years old and want each age to be proportionately represented, you separate the names in 6 containers for each age and pull five names from each.  year old male marathon runners, 5 – 21 year old male marathon runners, 5 – 22 year old male marathon runners, 5 – 23 year old male marathon runners, 5 – 24 year old male marathon runners, and 5 – 25 year old male marathon runners

Methods of Research  Naturalistic Observation : no interaction between observer and the people or animals being observed  Case Studies : an intensive study of a person or group  Surveys : a verbal or written questionnaire, interview, or a combination of the two  Longitudinal Studies : study the same group of people at regular intervals over a period of months or years

Methods of Research, continued…  Cross-Sectional Studies : organize participants according to their age to see if there are any differences between age groups  Correlations and Explanations : observations for the purpose of identifying any and all relationships between group or more groups  Experiments : a systemic way to control variables to test a hypothesis

Ethical Issues 1. Research must be planned to minimize misleading results. 2. Physical and psychological dangers as well as confidentiality must be protected. 3. State and federal laws and procedures must be followed. 4. Participants must be notified and consent to the observation or experiment except in the cases of anonymous surveys, naturalistic observations, etc. 5. Participants who give consent must sign a informed consent letter or form. 6. Deception is minimized. Deception is only permissible if the truth may interfere with the outcome of the experiment. 7. Participants have the right to be informed of the outcome of the study.

Section 2: Problems & Solutions in Research

Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy  Self-fulfilling prophecy – when a person has an expectation about a behavior or event and then act in a way (often unknowingly) to carry out that behavior or event.  SINGLE-BLIND Experiment : the researcher makes sure that the participants are not aware of the group to which they have been assigned: the control group (gets the placebo) or the experimental group (gets the actual treatment)  DOUBLE –BLIND Experiment : the researcher ensure that neither he/she or the participants are aware of the group to which they have been assigned. The researcher brings a neutral person in and teach him/her the research procedures. The neutral person then randomly assigns the participants in each group, but only identifies the participants by a code (i.e. number, letter, or fictitious name)

The Milgram Experiment See the ABCNews 20/20 Documentary on the recreation of the Milgram Experiment.

The Placebo Effect  A change in a patient’s illness or physical state that results only from the patient’s knowledge and perceptions of the treatment.  Example: The experimenter gives the participant or patient a “sugar pill” and tells them to take the pill and report any changes (positive or negative) in their illness. The idea of being given a pill that may help them could actually cause the patient to “feel better” even though the pill has no medicinal properties.

Section 3: Statistical Evaluation

Descriptive Statistics To list, show or summarize research data in a practical, efficient way through graphs and averages. See Figure 2.4 on page 48.

Distributions of Data  Frequency Distribution : showing data so that a person can see how often a score or observation occurred.  Normal Curve (aka Bell Curve): the distribution of data on a line graph that indicates that the majority of the population scored or performed in the middle range of the distribution.

Measures of Central Tendency  Mean – average score  Median – the middle score, once all scores are lined out  Mode – most frequent score

Correlations  Correlation : means the relationship between two variables or observations  POSITIVE CORRELATION : both variables either increase together or decrease together  NEGATIVE CORRELATION : one variable increases while the other one decreases