1. Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

2. I. The Need For Psychological Science
Unit 2: Research Methods

3. A. Hindsight Bias
Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
“I knew it all along”
“Hindsight is 20/20”

4. B. Overconfidence Think we know more than we do!
Together with hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition

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9. Common Sense

10. C. The Scientific Attitude
Three main components
Curious eagerness
Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas
Open-minded humility before nature

11. D. Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking: Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments & conclusions.
“Smart thinking”
Four elements:
Examines assumptions
Discerns hidden values
Evaluates evidence
Assesses conclusions

12. II. How Do Psychologists ask/Answer Questoins?
Unit 2: Research Methods
II. How Do Psychologists ask/Answer Questoins?

13. A. The Scientific Method
Scientific theory = Observations
Scientific theory = explains through an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

14. A. The Scientific Method
A good theory is useful if it:
Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations
Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory (hypothesis)
Operational Definitions: precise measures in reporting findings

16. A. The Scientific Method
Evaluates competing ideas with careful observations & rigorous analysis to describe and explain human nature.
1) Identify a Problem
2) State Observations about the problem
3) Form a Hypothesis about the problem, proposed solution. (if…then…)
4) Design an Experiment to test the hypothesis- control vs. experimental
5) Collect Data
6) Form a Conclusion
7) Replicate- operational
definition

17. B. Description Case Study
Observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Very open to bias… Why?

18. Survey Method
Relies on self-reports: questionnaires, interviews, and surveys.
Efficient and inexpensive

19. B. Description Naturalistic Observation
Observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Unaware they are being watched

20. C. Experimentation
Investigator manipulates one of more factors to observe effect of some behavior.
Only research that identifies cause/effect relationships

21. Population Random Sample
The total group being studied from which a sample is drawn.
Random Sample
Represents a population fairly:
Equal chance of being included.
If it is not random it is said to be biased.
Stratified Sample- ensuring that the sample represents the population in some way

22. Why Not Use the entire school in experiment?
On the AP Exam---many times you are asked to develop an experiment/research. If so, specify the size of your sample and do not use huge sizes. Also address your ability to make it random!

23. Independent Variable vs.
Causes something to happen
Manipulated by the experimenter
Should change the dependent variable
Effected by independent variable
Outcome of experiment
Variable being measured

24. Control Group Not exposed to the independent variable
Results are compared to those of the experimental group

25. Blind procedure
Participants are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experiment
Double blind procedure- researcher nor participants affect the outcome
This eliminates subject/experimenter bias

26. Placebo
Non-active substance or condition instead of a drug or active agent
Given to the control group

27. Placebo Effect Video Time…

28. Longitudinal Study Study same group of individuals many years
Very expensive and difficult to conduct

29. Longitudinal/Cross Sectional Study

30. Cross-Sectional Study
Simultaneously study subjects from different age groups
Cheaper, easier
Differences may be due to factors other than development

31. D. Correlation Correlational Study
Determines the degree to which two variables are related to one another…
Illusory Correlation: belief that two things are related when indeed they aren’t.
Correlation Coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

32. Positive Correlation
Value of 1 variable increases (or decreases) so does the value of the other variable.

33. Negative Correlation
Value of 1 variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases.

34. Zero Correlation
There is no relationship whatsoever between the two variables.

35. Homework Assignment
Find an experiment or correlational study that has been conducted in last five years and bring in a copy of the article and a summary to share with the class.
DUE FRIDAY!!

36. III. Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life

37. A. Describing Data 3 Measures of Central Tendency
Central Tendency = a single score that represents a whole set of scores.

38. Measures of Central Tendency
Mean = the average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the # of scores.

39. Measures of Central Tendency
Median = the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

40. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode = the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

41. Measures of Variability
Range = the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.
Standard Deviation= a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

42. Measures of Variability
Normal Curve (bell shaped)
= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

43. Making Inferences When Is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples
Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
More cases are better than fewer

44. B. Making Inferences When Is a Difference Significant?
Statistical significance
The averages are reliable
The differences between averages is relatively large
Does imply the importance of the results

45. IV. Ethics: Human Research (4 Basic Principles)
Module 2: Research Strategies
IV. Ethics: Human Research (4 Basic Principles)

46. 2. Right to be Protected from Harm/Discomfort
1. Informed Consent
General nature of the research
Any potential risks
Refuse participation or withdraw
2. Right to be Protected from Harm/Discomfort
Conducted under certain circumstances
Only with the informed consent

47. 3. Right of Confidentiality
Individual data about participants should never be discussed or released.
4. Right to Debriefing
Receive complete explanation of research at end of the study.
Important if research involves deception.

48. The End