Basic Sociological Concepts

Sociology Sociology is the Systematic study of human behavior Implies that social behavior is regular and patterned Takes place between individuals, small groups, large organizations, and societies

Sociological Imagination Ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and social influences Emphasizes connection between personal troubles and structural issues Relies on micro-and macro-level approaches to understanding social world Microsociology: Examines the patterns of individual’s social interaction in specific settings Macrosociology: Examines large-scale patterns and processes that characterize society as a whole

Importance of Sociology Helps make informed decisions Aids in understanding diversity Shapes social and public policies and practices Develops critical thinking Expands career opportunities

Origins of Sociological Theory Theories are developed to understand human behavior Theory: Set of statements that explains why a phenomenon occurs Produce knowledge, guide research, analyze the findings, and offer solutions for social problems Important Sociological Theorists: Auguste Comte Harriet Martineau Émile Durkheim Karl Marx Max Weber Jane Addams W.E.B. Du Bois

Contemporary Sociological Theories Functionalism Views society as a system of codependent parts that work together to ensure survival Society as a social system Composed of institutions having structures connected to each other, within which behavior occurs Functions - Contribute to a society’s stability and survival Dysfunctions: Have a negative impact on a society Manifest functions: Intended and recognized purposes and activities Latent functions: Unintended and unrecognized purposes and activities

Contemporary Sociological Theories Conflict Theory Examines how and why groups disagree, struggle over power, and compete for scarce resources Sources of conflict Racial discrimination Economic inequality Sources of economic inequality - Race, ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation Social inequality Involves tension between the haves and the have-nots

Contemporary Sociological Theories Feminist Theory Examine women’s social, economic, and political inequality Maintain that women suffer injustice because of their gender Stress upon freeing women from oppressive expectations and constraints, roles, and behavior Focusing on gender Emphasized by feminist scholars as an important research variable on micro and macro levels

Contemporary Sociological Theories Symbolic Interactionism Examines individual’s everyday behavior through the communication of: Knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes Focuses on process and keeping the person as the center of analysis Micro-level perspective Constructing meaning Individuals’ actions are based on social interaction Symbolic interaction Involves influencing people by communicating through symbols Words, gestures, or pictures Requires symbols to have shared meanings, or agreed-on definitions

Sources of Knowledge Tradition - Passed down from generation to generation Authority - Socially accepted source of information Research methods: Organized and systematic procedures to gain knowledge about a particular topic Importance of Sociological Research Challenges overgeneralization Exposes myth Helps explain people’s behavior Influences social policies Sharpens critical thinking skills that affect daily living

Scientific Method Body of objective and systematic techniques for: Investigating phenomena Acquiring knowledge Testing hypotheses and theories Elements of the Scientific Methods Concept: Abstract idea, mental image, or general notion that represents some aspect of the world Vary among individuals and cultures Variable: Changes in value or magnitude under different conditions Used by scientists to measure concepts Includes attitudes, behaviors, or traits Independent: Has an effect on the dependent variable Dependent: Outcome that is affected by the independent variable Control: Constant and unchanged Hypothesis: Statement of the expected relationship between multiple variables

Important to Research Deductive reasoning: Begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is tested through data collection Inductive reasoning: Begins with specific observation followed by: Data collection Conclusion about patterns or irregularities Formulation of hypotheses that lead to theory construction Reliability: Consistency with which the same measure produces similar results repeatedly Validity: Degree to which a measure is accurate and measures what it claims to measure Causation: Relationship in which one variable is the direct consequence of another Difficult to prove Correlation: Relationship between two or more variables

Steps in the Scientific Method 1. Choose a topic to study 2. Summarize the related research 3. Formulate a hypothesis or ask a research question 4. Describe the data collection methods 5. Collect the data 6. Present the finding 7. Analyze and explain the results

Data Collection Methods Surveys Data collection through questionnaires, interviews, or a combination Sample selection Random sample - Preferred because the results can be generalized to a larger population Questionnaire: Series of written questions that ask for information Close-ended questions Open-ended questions Interview: Researcher asks respondents a series of questions directly Structured Unstructured

Data Collection Methods Field Observation Involves observing people in their natural surroundings Converts the recorded data into quantitative summaries Examines complex communication patterns Measures the frequency of acts or note the duration of a particular behavior Participatory---Researchers interact with the people they are studying Non-participatory---Researchers study phenomena without being part of the situation Short-time---Observing for a few weeks or months Ethnographies---Require a significant amount of time in the field

Basic Principles of Ethical Sociological Research Do no harm by causing participants physical, psychological, or emotional pain Obtain the participants informed consent to be in a study Protect the participants privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality Avoid exploiting research assistants for personal gain Use the highest methodological standards and be accurate Describe the limitations and shortcomings of the research in the published reports Identify the sponsors of the research Acknowledge the contributions of research assistants for their participation