1. Chapter 2 Theoretical Perspectives and Methods of Social Research Key Terms

2. theory A framework that can be used to comprehend and explain events. sociological theory A set of principles and definitions that tell how societies operate and how people relate to one another and respond to the environment.

3. research A fact-gathering and fact-explaining enterprise governed by strict rules. research method A technique used to formulate meaningful research questions and collect, analyze and interpret facts in ways that allow other researchers to check the results.

4. function The contribution of a part of the order and stability with the larger system. manifest functions A part's intended or anticipated effects on order and stability.

5. latent functions Unintended or unanticipated effects on order and stability. dysfunctions Disruptive consequences to society or to some segment in society.

6. manifest dysfunctions A part’s anticipated disruptions to order and stability. latent dysfunctions Unintended, unanticipated disruptions to order and stability.

7. means of production The land, machinery, buildings, tools and other technologies needed to produce and distribute goods and services. bourgeoisie The owners of the means of production.

8. proletariat A less powerful class composed of workers who own nothing of the production process and who sell their labor to the bourgeoisie. facade of legitimacy An explanation that members in dominant groups give to justify their actions.

9. social interaction Everyday events in which two people communicate interpret and respond to each other’s words and actions. symbol Any kind of physical phenomenon to which people assign a name, meaning or value.

10. scientific method An approach to data collection in which knowledge is gained through observation and its truth confirmed through verification. objectivity A state in which personal, subjective views do not influence one’s opinions or behavior.

11. concepts Thinking and communication tools that are used to give and receive complex information efficiently and to frame and explain observations. research design A plan for gathering data that specifies the population and method of data collection.

12. method of data collection The procedures used to gather relevant data. traces Materials or other evidence that yield information about human activity.

13. documents Written or printed materials used in research. territories Settings that have borders or that are set aside for particular activities.

14. households All related and unrelated persons who share the same dwelling. small groups Two to about 20 people who interact with one another in meaningful ways.

15. populations The total number of individuals, traces, documents, territories, households, or groups that could be studied. sample A portion of the cases from a larger population.

16. random sample A sample in which every case in the population has an equal chance of being selected. representative sample A research sample with the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it is selected.

17. sampling frame A complete list of every case in the population. self-administered questionnaire A set of questions given to respondees who read the instructions fill in the answers themselves.

18. interviews Interviewer asks questions and records respondent’s answers. structured interview Wording and sequence of questions are set in advance and cannot be changed during the interview.

19. unstructured interview Question-answer sequence is spontaneous, open-ended, and flexible. observation A research technique involving watching, listening to, and recording behavior and conversations as they happen.

20. nonparticipant observation A research technique involving detached watching and listening in which the research does not interact with the study participants. participant observation Researcher interacts directly with study participants.

21. secondary sources Data that have been collected by other researchers for some other purpose. variable Trait or characteristics that can change under different conditions or that consist of more than one category.

22. dependent variable The behavior to be explained or predicted. independent variable The variable that explains or predicts the dependent variable.

23. hypothesis Trial explanation put forward as the focus of research that predicts how independent and dependent variables are related and what outcomes will occur. operational definitions Precise definitions and instructions about how to observe and measure variables.

24. reliability The extent to which the operational definitions gives consistent results. validity The degree to which an operational finding measures what it claims to measure.

25. generalizability The extent to which findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample is drawn. correlation conflict A mathematical representation of the extent to which a change in one variable is associated with a change in another variable.

26. spurious correlation A correlation that is coincidental or accidental because some third variable is related to both the independent anted dependent variables. control variable Variables suspected of causing a spurious correlation.

27. ascribed characteristics Any physical trait that is biological in origin and/or cannot be changed but to which people assign overwhelming significance.