Welcome to Concepts of Biology Extra help Room 107 or Room 411. Before school and after school.

Lab Safety Lab Safety is very important! We must complete the lab with zero accidents!

Chemical reaction video:

SPECIFIC STEPS THAT SCIENTISTS USE TO UNDERSTAND LIFE. THEY USE A LOGICAL PROCESS TO EXPLORE THE WORLD AND COLLECT INFORMATION. The Scientific Method

1. OBSERVATION 2. QUESTION 3. HYPOTHESIS 4. EXPERIMENT 5. ANALYSIS 6. COMMUNICATION Steps to the Scientific Method

Leads to a “theory.” When new evidence is discovered, scientific ideas and theories may change. A theory is a widely accepted idea. How does the internet help or hurt communication among scientist?

Evolutionary Cycle Evolution is life that changes over time. It changes over time by creating new species, also known as speciation. Extinction is when a species no longer exists. Adaptations help a species live in a new area. The environment is an organism’s natural surroundings.

Ecological Cycles Ecology – how do different species live together? Ecosystems – included living and non-living things in a particular area. Stimulus is anything to which an organism reacts.

CHAPTER 1 TEST There will be a chapter 1 test on Thursday, Sept. 18. Review your end of section questions written in your notebook. You may also take the book home but please return it.

Chapter 2 Why do we study Chemistry in Biology? Remember that there are many different levels among living things. (organization) One level of organization is the molecular level. Studying this level requires an understanding of chemistry.

STUDY OF MATTER AND HOW IT CHANGES. Chemistry

Watch a Chemical Change! Vinegar - Acid - plus Baking Soda – base = CARBON DIOXIDE MOST CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE ACID-BASE REACTIONS.

Atoms and Cells Chemistry All living things. Atoms (one or more) make molecules. Biology All living things. Combinations of molecules make up the cell. Cell is the smallest unit of life.

Chemical vs Physical Change Chemical Elements combine or rearrange. Result – a chemically different substance. Example: digestion of food, rust Usually not reversible. Physical Substance is not changed into a different substance. Phase change(changes of state). Example: water boiling,can crushing. May be reversed.

ELEMENTS COMBINE TO FORM COMPOUNDS. ATOMS MAKE UP ELEMENTS. Elements are found on the periodic table.

Atoms Subatomic particles Protons – positive charge Neutrons – neutral charge Electrons – negative charge

Atomic Number Number of protons. Identifies the element. Appears above the symbol.

Atomic Mass Mass of the electrons, protons, and neutrons. Appears at the bottom.

Isotopes Like an element except a different number of neutrons. Example: Carbon-14, Carbon-12 8 neutrons vs 6 neutrons May be radioactive (emit radiation). AKA tracers. Ex. Fossil dating, medical, radon gas.

Elements and Compounds Elements have only one kind of atom. Look at the Periodic Table for the list of elements. Represented by a symbol. Compounds – are combined elements. Ex. H2O is water

ION Has either a positive or negative charge. An ion forms when an atom or molecule gains or loses one or more electrons. If positive it lost an electron If negative it gained an electron

Example of an ionic bond.

Chemical Formulas Element symbols are used. How many atoms of each element are in H20? This is one molecule of water.

Chemical Formula example Na+ + Cl- = NaCl Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium chloride

This is a binary compound (2 elements). First name is the same name as the first element in the compound. Second name is the name as the second element of the compound with the ending –ide.

Fluoride An important element for healthy teeth. (Flourine) No. 9 on the Periodic Table. Fluoride prevents cavities by affecting the metabolism of bacteria that live in the plaque that coats teeth. It is added to drinking water in some towns.

Chapter 2, Section 4 Electrons behavior determines how an atom behaves when it meets other atoms. This is called chemical bonding. Electrons orbit in specific energy levels called electron shells. An atom has the tendency to fill its outer energy level. (More stable)

Remember that a chemical change is when atoms are combined or rearranged. An atom’s chemical properties are determined by the number of electrons it has and by how full or empty its outer electron shell is. 2 Types of chemical bonds: Covalent and Ionic

Chemical Reactions Energy is neither created not destroyed. Reactants: a substance in a chemical reaction that is changed. Product: the substance that is formed in a chemical reaction.

Example of a chemical reaction ReactantsProducts 2H +O yields 2H O

Lesson 5 Properties of Water Organisms - 70% water Human body cells – 70%-95% water Important to drink lots of water!

H 2 O

Water molecule

Water has a simple molecular structure. Forms a covalent bond.  Hydrogen share its electrons to fill its outer shell. Oxygen also needs electrons to complete its outer shell. Together, they form a covalent bond because of the SHARING.  Hydrogen doesn’t pull as hard as oxygen because it has less protons.

Water is a Polar Molecule The oxygen end of the water molecule has a slight negative charge. The hydrogen end of the water molecule has a slight positive charge. This is call a POLAR MOLECULE. Easily dissolved.

Properties of Water Holds heat: holds heat much longer than other matter. Controls human body temperature. (perspiration) Expands as it freezes: molecules move further apart and form ice. Is an excellent solvent: can dissolve other substances. Has a strong surface tension: Wolf spider

Questions p. 56 #4, 5, and 6 word bank: surface polar what number? Do not answer questions 7, 8 and 9 Answer number 10. This is your “exit ticket.” “Why is water an important part of blood?”

Chapter 2, Lesson 6 Acid – Base Chemistry Cells contain substances called acids and bases. A pH number tells whether a substance is an acid or a base. pH= potential hydrogen.

Acid Base When a compound donates hydrogen ions to a solution. Strength is measured on the pH scale. When a compound accepts hydrogen ions to a solution. Strength is measured on the pH scale. Acid vs Base

Acids Bases Acid vs Base

pH Scale Shows the strength of an acid or base.

Acids Bases = very acid 7 = neutral Breaks apart into H + ions. 7 – = very basic 7 = neutral Breaks apart into OH - ions. Acids vs Bases on the pH scale

Buffers A buffer is a solution that can received moderate amounts of either acid or base without significantly changing its pH. A buffers accepts or donates the H + ions when pH levels rise or fall. Ex. Human blood from 7.4 to 7.0 could cause a coma. Buffers in a person’s body keep the pH at a safe level.

Lesson 6 Review Questions On page 62 answer questions * Question 6 is a CHALLENGE QUESTION! See if you can answer it and become the acid-base expert! Critical Thinking questions may require reading and a partner effort.

Biology in the World Read “Blood and pH” on page 63. A small pH change in your blood can make a world of difference.

Lab on acids and bases Always wear your safety goggles! Tell the teacher for any chemical spills – do NOT attempt to clean it up yourself! Read the lab directions carefully and pace yourself. Remember, we have only approximately 40 mins. To complete the lab.

Chapter 4: What is a cell? Different molecules come together to form a living thing (an organism). The different combination of molecules form the first level of organization, the cell. A cell is the smallest unit of life.

CELLS

What do cells do? Functions of the cell:  DNA is found in cells (instructions for life).  Energy is produced in the cell by the food we eat.  Molecules combine to form a cell that result in an organism structure.

Molecules in a cell (2 slides) Carbohydrates: energy source (ATP) support structure (rigid) Lipids: long term energy (when carbs are not available.) is the main molecule in membranes. Helps to act as a barrier for the cell and separates it. helps in making hormones (chemical signals.)

Chapter 4, Lesson 2 Cellular Structure and Function How do structure and function relate? Structure: the way something is organized or arranged. Function: how something works. (Have you learned math functions? For an input of value there is an output.)

Molecules in a cell (continued) Proteins: Used for communication between cells. Used as enzymes (chemical reactions) Keeps cell structure steady Nucleic acids: DNA makes proteins based on the order of bases. RNA helps makes proteins.

Cell Structure and Function A cell’s structure determines its function. If a cell does not have a certain kind of molecule, it cannot perform a certain function. Comparison: Car’s frame (structure) to function. - to support chassis - deal with dynamic and static loads (peoples’ weight, cargo loads) - collision impacts

Homeostasis The ability of organisms to maintain their internal conditions. (inside and outside the cell)

Terms Transport: to move molecules from one side of a membrane to the other. Concentration: The amount of dissolved substance in a fixed amount of solvent. Diffusion: the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration.

Terms continued Osmosis: the movement of water through a cell Selectively permeable membrane – in a cell some molecules pass but others do not. Solute: a dissolved substance.

The Cell Theory 1) All living things are made of cells. All cells have some structures in common, such as DNA. 2) Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. 3) Cells only come from already present cells.

Microscopes and Cells Light microscopes: Uses light to help magnify objects. Electron microscopes: uses a beam of electrons. Robert Hooke – looked at cork slices. Saw little “box-like” structures and called them “cells.” Anton vonLeeuwenhoek – 10 yrs later was the first person to view living cells under a microscope.

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic No nucleus Simple organism Has only one outside membrane. Ex: bacteria Has a nucleus Complex organism Has many membranes because of the many organelles inside the cell. Ex: pine trees Ch 4, Lesson 3

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Examples of Prokaryotic + Eukaryotic Cells

Ch 4, Lesson 4 “After the Cell” The cells of larger organisms have different functions based on their structures. These cells are put together in an orderly way.

4 Levels of Organ Systems (in the body) Cells Tissues: cells group together to form tissues (skin, nerves, muscle) Organs: tissues group together to form organs (heart) Organ systems: organs group together to form organ systems (circulatory system)

This is the end of chapter 4! Instead of a chapter test, we will complete a writing sample for our chapter assessment. Using the letters of eukaryotic or prokaryotic you will develop a well-formed paragraph answering the following questions :

Chapter 4 Writing Assessment What is an eukaryotic/prokaryotic cell? How is it different than a eukaryotic/prokaryotic cell? What are the parts and functions to a eukaryotic/prokaryotic cell? Reference textbook page

Assessment Points Does the paragraph keep on topic? Do the sentences follow the correct order? Is the assignment on time? Is it typed and neat? 30 points 10 points

Example C E L L Cells are the basic units of life. Each cell contains many different structures that perform many different functions. Lots of information is contained in a cell. Learning about cells can be fun and exciting!

Ch 5 Eukaryotic Cells Let’s go back to slide # 58 for a review of the two types of cells. Eukaryotic cells contain organelles. Organelles are surrounded by membranes. The cell has its outer cell membrane. Membranes help perform special functions. **Membranes control the activities of the cell.

Review on cell membranes 2 types of membranes in a cell: Plasma membrane: surrounds the cells and separates it from the environment. Organelle membranes: surrounds the organelles in the cell.

Plasma Membranes The selectively permeable membrane allows some molecules to pass through and stops some.

Organelle Membranes Organelles are bound (surrounded) by membranes. Organelles process information and energy for the cell.

ANSWER QUESTIONS #4, #5, #7. Questions p. 137

FOOD ENERGY SOURCES WASTE PRODUCTS What kinds of things enter and leave the cell?

CELLS UNDER A MICROSCOPE. DRAW EACH CELL EXACTLY AS YOU SEE IT. LABEL ALL PARTS. LAB

NUCLEUS LARGEST MAJOR CONTROLS INFORMATION SURROUNDED BY THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (PORES) “CONTROL CENTER” CONTAINS ORGANISM’S ENTIRE DNA Ch 5, lesson 3 Organelles in eukaryotic cells

Nucleus

FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS DOUBLE STRAND OF NUCLEIC ACID. DNA

GENOME – THE ENTIRE DNA FOR AN ORGANISM. CHROMOSOMES – MOLECULES IN THE NUCLEUS THAT CONTAIN DNA AND PROTEINS. CHROMOSOMES CONTAIN GENES. DNA

Ribosomes Make proteins.

Reading Read “Technology and Society” p. 143 Show Electron Microscope Images on the internet. Electron Microscopes use electrons instead of light which allows scientists to see microscopic images in finer detail that ever before.

Classwork P. 145 Questions 1-10

Ch 5 Lesson 4 Energy Organelles Cells have different jobs. All cells take in nutrients, remove waste, reproduce, and make proteins. To do this they use ATP as a source of energy. This energy comes from the sun. Chloroplasts and mitochondria transform the energy from the sun for use by the cell.

Chloroplasts Only in plant cells. Chlorophyll: absorbs the energy from the sun and passes this energy to the other molecules in the cell. Photosynthesis: energy process that produces glucose for the plant or other organisms.

Mitochondria Use CELLULAR RESPIRATION to produce energy or fuel for the cell. “Powerhouse’ of the cell.

Ch 5, Lesson 5 Endomembrane System “inside the membrane” The organelles in this system are mostly made of membranes. In the real world it is like a factory: raw materials>product made>product packaged>product shipped.

Endoplasmic Reticulum ER 2 kinds: rough and smooth Packages the proteins the ribosomes make and sends it to the next organelle.

Golgi apparatus Stack of flat membrane sacs. (pancakes) Packages the molecules and sends it elsewhere in the cell.

Vacuoles Ship molecules within a cell or outside of the cell. Store material for later use.

Lyosomes Contain special enzymes Enzymes help the cell digest large molecules so they can be used.

Factory system Raw materials>  Product made>  Product packaged>  Product shipped…………

Ch 5 Lesson 6 The Cytoskeleton Group of fibers that give the cell support and help it keep its shape. (ex. Human skeleton)

Ch 5, Lesson 7 Plant Cells Plant cells are eukaryotic cells. Plant cells unique structures. Chloroplasts Cell wall Central vacuole

Plant Animal Plant vs. Animal Cells

READ P DISCUSS QUESTIONS #1, #2, #3. Mitochondrial DNA

This ends chapter 5! Chapter test: TBA

Analogy - a similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison can be made. Ex. - “the analogy between the heart and the pump.” Ex. – “Life is like a box of chocolates.”

Chapter 8 Photosynthesis in Energy Cycles Question: How do you get energy to perform your daily activities? Can plants eat food? Where do they get their energy?

What is photosynthesis? Photosynthesis changes the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into high energy sugars and oxygen. 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 *equation is different in textbook.

Photosynthesis in words _________ + ___________ yields __________ + __________

Cellular Respiration The opposite equation of photosynthesis. C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 yields 6CO 2 + H 2 O + ATP ATP is manufactured during this process. ATP provides immediate energy to the cell. ATP= adenine triphosphate

Autotrophs An organism that makes its own food. Ex. Plants. Plants make their own food through photosynthesis.

Green Leaves Photosynthesis takes place mostly in the leaves. Green leaves contain chloroplasts. This is where photosynthesis takes place. Chloroplasts contain a green pigment chlorophyll. This is what makes the plant green.

Fall Colors The orange, red, and yellow pigments – as well as green – as always present in the leaf. It is not until the chloroplasts begin to die that the red and yellow pigments become the main color. What is it that causes these colors to appear?

Questions on lesson 1, ch 8 Page 227 Questions 1,2,3,5 in your notebooks.

Chapter 8, Lesson 2 The Light Reaction The sun provides light in a form of energy called electromagnetic radiation. Photon – smallest unit of light. Pigments in green leaves absorb photons of light.

Wavelengths - distance between wave patterns of energy.

Humans can only see “visible light” in the middle of the spectrum. Wavelengths of light are measured in nanometers (nm). Life depends on the energy of the visible light of the spectrum. Light above this area or below is either too weak or too strong for life.

Two processes of Photosynthesis 1) Light reaction: plant cells convert sunlight to chemical energy. Products from this is ADP and NADPH. Oxygen is also released into the air. 2) Dark reaction: Calvin –Benson cycle: cells produce sugar from carbon dioxide. Both occur in the chloroplast.

The electron transport chain Electron split water molecules and oxygen is released. This is where the earth’s oxygen levels are maintained. This is during the light reaction. Sum up: the light reaction in photosynthesis converts solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH. Oxygen is released. No sugar is produced.

Classwork Page 235 Questions 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10 In your notebook WRITE THE ENTIRE SENTENCE!

Ch 8, Lesson 3 The Dark Reaction Calvin-Benson cycle “Sugar factory” Changes its input, mainly carbon dioxide into a sugar (G3P) Look at figure for a Calvin-Benson cycle diagram.

C 4 Plants and CAM Plants Sometimes photosynthesis can stop to protect the plant. Weather may be too dry and water may evaporate too quickly. Corn and crabgrass have an enzyme that take CO 2 and turn it into a four-carbon compound. This means C 4 can photosynthesize in hot dry, weather.

Nov 21 Biology Trimester Please sit at a desk with a blank piece of paper. Prepare yourself with a pen/pencil. There are 3 writing portions to the test. Mentally tell yourself, “I will do GREAT on this exam! Good Luck! Do your best.

“After the test” Sit quietly. Take the 2 pieces of paper at the front desk and complete. This is homework that is due Tuesday, Nov. 25 th. Good Luck on your History exam!

Monday after exam Please submit the study guide if you did not hand it in on Friday.

Lab on Photosynthesis Remember lab safety rules! Please read the lab, then we will perform the lab together.

Chapter 9 Lesson 1Cell Cycle and Mitosis Lesson 2What is Cancer? Lesson 3Meiosis: Life Cycle of Sex Cells. Lesson 4Human Development

Lesson 1 Life Cycles of Cells + Reproduction Why should cells have the ability to reproduce? 1) To continue the existence of the species. 2) To grow and regenerate. 3) To duplicate heredity traits. 4) To replace or repair damaged cells.

Cell Division Form of reproduction. Dividing cell is part of a larger organism. Mitosis: the way a cell divides and makes new cells.

Homework Bring in 2 pictures of yourself. 1 should be a baby picture. 2 nd one should be a recent photo.

Comparison of Personal Pictures As you compare your pictures think of the following: How do you explain the changes that occurred since you were a baby? Ever get a bruise when you were small?

How bruises heal Bruises heal by skin cells reproducing more cells.

The Cell Cycle Begins when a new cell is created. It ends when it divides to make new cells. (aka reproduction)

Cell Cycle

Length of Cell Cycles Depends on the type of cell. Interphase 90% Mammal cell 24 hours. Human liver cell 1 year

Interphase – before Mitosis At creation a cell begins in interphase. Longest stage of the cell cycle. Divided into 3 stages: G 1, S, G 2, M. (M = mitosis)

Interphase terms Cell grows to a mature size. DNA copy occurs during this phase. Copies of chromosomes stay together as “sister chromatids.” Held together by “centromeres.”

Chromosomes

MITOSIS Mitosis is the process of creating two identical nuclei for two identical cells. 4 phases

4 Phases of Mitosis These MUST BE memorized in order! Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Mitosis continued Both the nucleus and cytoplasm divide in eukaryotic cell division. Why would it be necessary for the nucleus to divide evenly?

Mitosis 1st phase Prophase Spindle fibers form: helps to separate the chromosomes. DNA in the chromosomes have been copied.

Mitosis 2nd phase Metaphase Paired chromosomes line up in the center of the cell. The nucleus disappears.

Mitosis 3 rd phase Anaphase Pairs of chromosomes separate. They move to opposite sides of the cell.

Mitosis 4 th phase Telophase Two new nuclear envelopes form. Cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

Mitosis continued Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells from one parent cell. DNA in the daughter cells is an exact copy of the parent DNA.

Mitosis assignment Copy the stages of mitosis into your notebook. Use page 249. Label all organelles and phases.

Challenge Question!!! Only eukaryotic cells go through mitosis. With what you know about the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, and what you have just learned about mitosis, why is this?

Answer to Challenge Question Mitosis is the division of the nucleus. Do a prokaryotic cell have a nucleus? Instead, prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission. DNA is copied and doubles in size.

CH 9 lesson 2 What is Cancer? A physical condition where a cell grows without control and divides too much. One cause of cancer is a “control system break.” Production of more signal molecules than needed.

Cancer terms Tumor – when cells divide too much and create a ball of cells. Benign tumor – grows in only one area of the body. Malignant tumor – a tumor that has spread to other areas of the body.

Cancer terms Metastasis: The process of cancerous cells spreading to other body areas. (Through the blood and attach to other areas)

Cancer treatments Removal in surgery Radiation therapy Chemotherapy Read “Life Span of Human Cells”

Page 253 Answer question 1-5 in your notebooks. Use complete sentences.

Chapter 9 Quiz Lessons 1 and 2 Monday, Dec. 8

Ch 9, Lesson 3 Meiosis Meiosis is the process that involves the life cycle of sex cells. Mitosis results in 2 cells. Meiosis results in 4 cells.

Gametes (Sex Cells) Cells involved in sexual reproduction. Do not perform mitosis. Rather they reproduce through meiosis.

FEMALE MALE Egg Sexual reproduction 23 chromosomes (regular cells = 46) Sperm Sexual reproduction 23 chromosomes (regular cells = 46) Gametes

Somatic Cells Gametes Are not sex cells 46 chromosomes in the nucleus Human Diploid (having 2 copies of chromosomes) Sex cells 23 chromosomes in the nucleus Human Haploid (having 1 copy) Human Cells

Fertilization The joining of one egg cell with one sperm cell. A new cell is created called a zygote.

Zygote 46 chromosomes Diploid Will now go through mitosis to create a new organism.

Meiosis – gamete reproduction Meiosis I and Meiosis II Formation of haploid cells.

Meiosis I Look at page 257 What looks familiar? “Crossing-over” - the trading of DNA pieces between chromosomes. This makes organisms unique! Different chromosomes are passed on to the offspring.

Meiosis II Look on page 258 What looks familiar? What looks different? DNA is NOT copied in meiosis II. Starts with the 2 cells that ends with meiosis I.

Meiosis II (continued) The two cells produce 4 haploid cells in total. Each gamete cell has 23 chromosomes. When the gametes fertilize the result is a zygote with ______ chromosomes.

Mitosis Meiosis Both divide + reproduce. 1 cell = 2 somatic cell. Most cells are somatic, mitosis is more common. Both divide + reproduce. 1 cell = 2 divisions = 4 gamete cells. Less common. Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Notebook Activity Page 259 Answer all questions in complete sentences.

Math The letter n represents the number of haploid chromosomes in an organism. Examples: Chimpanzee: 2n = 48, n = ? Horse: n = 32, 2n = ? Frog: 2n = 26, n = ? Fruit fly: n = 4, 2n = ? (24, 64, 13, 8)

Ch 10, Lesson 1 Inheritance Patterns in Life Cycles. Why is your hair brown/blonde? Why are your eyes green/blue/brown?

Youtube and meiosis vs. mitosis

Heredity Pair with a partner and make a list of physical traits that you both have in common. Then make a list of physical traits that each of you may have that your partner does not.

Heredity Your physical traits are due to your parents process of reproduction. Trait - characteristics that are inherited through gametes. (eye color, height) Heredity – study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring.

Heredity Gregor Mendel: 1800’s Austrian monk Priest, teacher, monastery gardens. Worked with garden peas. (about 20,000 plants!)

Mendel Mendel noticed common traits in the plants. Tall vs. short Flowers purple vs. white Flower position on stem Seed shape/color Pea pod shape/color

Mendel Used cross-fertilization (pollen fertilizes an egg from a different plant).

Mendel’s Studies Punnett Square – model used to represent genetic crosses between organisms. Mendel’s results are shown in the Punnett Square. His results showed the “Law of Independent Assortment.” (each pair of chromosomes separate on its own meiosis.)

Punnett Square

Generations P generation: the first two individuals that mate. F 1 : offspring of P generation F 2 : F 1 generation fertilizes each other

F 1 generation Mendel’s results from the F 1 cross: The recessive trait disappeared completely! T = tall Dominant trait t = short Recessive trait

End of ch 10, Lesson 1 What did Mendel discover?  Compare and contrast Mendel’s discoveries.

F 2 generation Mendel’s results from the F 2 cross: The recessive trait appeared! (These traits were hidden in the F 1 generation.) The dominant trait also appeared!

Punnett Square Crosses Look at P. 281: Cross between true-breeding tall plants with true- breeding short plants. F 1 generation TT (pure tall) X tt (pure short)

Dominant vs. Recessive Dominant T tall Recessive t short

If tall is dominant….results TT = tall (Dominant trait shows) Tt = tall (Dominant trait shows) Simple Dominance - one allele is dominant to a recessive allele. tt = short (Recessive trait shows) Simple Dominance

F 1 cross results Look at P. 282 : This is a cross between the F 1 results. Tt X Tt

F 2 GENERATION P. 282 Results: 3 out 4Tall 1 out 4Short For every 3 tall plants there was one short plant.

Monohybrid Dihybrid Cross between 2 plants that differ only in one trait. Cross between 2 plants that differ in two traits. Different Genetic Crosses

#1 - #5 WRITE ENTIRE QUESTION AND ANSWER. #4 = P. 278 #5 WRITE IN A COMPLETE SENTENCE. P. 283 Questions

Genotype Phenotype An organism’s combination of genes for a trait. Ex. Mendel’s pea plants Tt. What an organism looks like physically. Ex. Mendel’s pea plants were tall. Organism’s combination of genes: Ch 10,lesson 2

Allele Relationships Read Blood Types 3 different alleles A, B, and O form these blood types: Type A Type B Type O Type AB

Workbook Activity Workbook Activity Page 53 Investigate for answers in the textbook, chapter 10, lesson 2.

Chapter 10, Lesson 3 Sex Chromosomes Sex chromosomes determine the sex of the organism. XX = femaleXY = male

Genetic Disorders Genetic disorders are found on our genes on our sex chromosomes. These sex chromosomes determine some sex-linked traits. It is the X chromosome that contain these sex-linked genes.

Sex-linked traits The pairing of sex chromosomes (XX or XY) not only determines the sex of the organism but can also influence the inheritance of sex- linked traits.

Ch 11 GENETIC INFORMATION CYCLES Genes are responsible for the traits that are passed on from parents to offspring. Genes are on our chromosomes. However, it is the DNA in our genes that transmit genetic information.

In this chapter (11) we will……. Describe the structure/function of DNA. Identify viruses in DNA. Explain changes in DNA to lead to health problems. Organisms have systems to fight disease.

E – Z Nucleotide (Sugar is deoxyribose) Chemical Nucleotide (Sugar is deoxyribose) DNA, a nucleic acid, has many smaller molecules called nucleotides.

Nucleotides have nitrogenous bases Attaches to the sugar. Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

Nitrogenous base pairing on the DNA nucleotide. Complementary base pairing: Adenine pairs with Thymine Guanine pairs with Cytosine

Discovery of DNA’s Structure Erwin Chargraff (1949) Amount of adenine equaled amount of thymine. Amount of guanine equaled amount of cytosine.

Discovery of DNA’s Structure Rosalind Franklin (1950’s) Took an x-ray picture of DNA that was given to Watson and Crick.

Discovery of DNA’s Structure James Watson and Francis Crick Using Franklin’s photograph they built of new DNA model. Published their model in Double helix: twisted shape of DNA. Nobel Prize awarded.

DNA video Youtube and DNA discoveries.

Express Lab 11, Page 308 Analyze Chargraff’s chart on nitrogenous bases in the DNA of various organisms. Answer questions 1 and 2 in complete sentences. Draw conclusions based on graph results.

Ch 11, DNA Replication The process of copying DNA – REPLICATION. (Transferring information from parents to offspring.) Scientists discovered this process in 1950.

Hershey and Chase Used bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) to determine that DNA passed from parent to offspring.

DNA Replication Step 1: Double helix unwinds. Step 2: Strands separate. Step 3: New nucleotides form by adding a new strand to complement the old one. Step 4: New DNA molecule has one old strand and one new strand.

DNA Replication Examine the figure on page 312. What happens at a replication fork? Compare and contrast the roles of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase.

Viruses Let’s read Lesson 4. Scan the section. What will we read about? Viruses are pieces of DNA/RNA wrapped in a protein shell.

Viruses - are cellular parasites that need other living things to grow and reproduce. Viruses use cells to do this. Viruses cause colds in humans.

Computer Viruses Method of transmission compare to biological viruses. Prevents the user from controlling the computer program. In humans, biological viruses contain no organelles to use as their host.

Computer viruses continued….. It attaches itself to a program/file. Enables itself to spread from one computer to another. Leaves an infection as it travels. Ranges in severity (from annoying to severe.) Are run by human action.

Classwork After reading about viruses answer questions 1-10 on page 324. Pair/share your answers with a partner after 20 minutes.

Biotechnology Lesson 5, ch 11 Biotechnology is the science of using living organisms and their genetics to make medicines and better food crops. Biotechnology changes genetic makeup to make new molecules.

Biotechnology Biotechnology includes the use of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering transfer DNA from one organism to another.

Writing Activity Read p. 330 “Do Genetically Modified Foods need Stricter Controls?” (source: Academic PTHS textbook) Critical Thinking Activity Should we be eating genetically modified foods? List the reasons you would or would not be concerned about eating genetically modified food.

Genetically Modified Foods 1) What is it advertising? 2) Is it good for you? Beneficial to your health? 3) What could you add to the poster?

Ch 11 Lesson 6 Disease Defenses Lymph System – Regulates internal body functions to defend against human diseases. Lymph system carries hormones and chemicals to do this.

Nonspecific defense 1) Human skin – keeps out “invaders.” 2) Phagocytes – white blood cells that eat infected and foreign cells. 3) Inflammatory response – increases blood flow and amount of phagocytes. A fever also helps in fighting the disease.

Specific defense Lymphocytes – type of white blood cell that helps overcoming an infection in the human body. 2 types: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes

IMMUNITY - the ability of the body to fight off a specific pathogen. (germ) Memory cells become activated upon an infection. Antigens are activated, divide quickly, and fight the pathogen. Ex.: chickenpox

The Vaccine War Who should be involved in deciding whether children receive a specific vaccine? Should the government have the right to compel vaccination? Should parents have the right to refuse it?

Vaccine Debate MeganAve VanessaEthan ChelseaAbby BryanNick Library research today. Debate tomorrow.

Evolution and Natural Selection Ch 13 Have you ever noticed that different animals have different characteristics that aid them in survival? What characteristics of an animal will enable them to survive?

Survival traits Markings on fur help them to blend in to the environment. Fast runners: allow them to catch prey. Sharp quills on the porcupine protect them against predators. Long necks on giraffes enable them to get food. Hibernation: saves energy and need for food at a time they can’t find it. Migration

Goals for Learning Why is the study of evolution important? Can evolutionary theory help predict which strains of flu, AIDS, and West Nile virus will be most deadly next year?  Evolutionary history, resistance to disease, control of drugs for prevention, control, and cure.

Biological Evolution Ch 13, Lesson 1 Evolution: change in a population over time. Biological evolution: change in the gene pool of populations of organisms over time. Gene pool – genes found within a population.

Evidence of Evolution Fossils – remains of impressions of organisms that lived in the past.

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck 1800’s Was one of the first scientist to discuss evolution and he felt organisms change as they adjust to changes in the environment. The changes pass on to the offspring. Scientists rejected this idea.

Acquired trait Lamark believed giraffes had a long neck due to stretching it for food. Acquired trait: a trait that comes from an organism’s behavior and is passed to offspring.

Charles Darwin Travelled on ship the Beagle around the world.

Darwin’s travels….Descent with modification Observed that organisms were alike but also different. Suggested organisms living today descended (evolved) from organisms that lived million of years ago. They spread to different areas. And then changed to fit into new life.

Darwin’s travels….Natural Selection Observed not all offspring survived. Observed a great variation among organisms. Suggested that individuals with best survival traits are more likely to reproduce. On the Origin of Species 1859

Definition Adapt: to change genetically over generations to become more suited to the environment.

Darwin’s Theory Darwin had 2 main ideas on evolution: 1) Common descent: present organisms are related to past organisms. All birds and mammal came from a past animal 2) Natural selection: new variations give individuals survival advantages. They also produce more offspring.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Exit Ticket What’s your opinion on evolution? Do you think we evolved from prehistoric individuals? Why or why not?

Evidence of Evolution, Lesson 2 Modern Synthesis – populations evolve Evidence for this are fossils, patterns of livings things distributed around earth, similarity in body structures, DNA comparisons.

Fossils Preserved remains of animals, plants, and other organisms. Sedimentary rock – area where fossils are usually found (pressed rock, layers).

Fossils Biogeography: how fossils are geographically distributed. ex. Kangaroos in Australia.

Adaptation of the Human Hand Lab Break up into groups – 2 each. Read the Lab Omit “C” in Procedure. Substitute “use your phone” for C. Lab Discussion Questions

Human Hand Evolution

Comparative Anatomy The study of anatomy of animals of different species. Homologous structures (similar parts in different animals)

Molecular Biology Scientists use molecular biology to study evidence of evolution. DNA analysis: - similarities (common ancestors) - differences (changes in DNA seqences)

Chapter 14 Speciation + Equilibrium Look at the medium ground finch. What determines what species this finch is?

Medium Ground Finch DNA analysis Number of chromosomes Specific Biochemistry Inability to successfully reproduce with other species that are similar.

Classification of Living Things Based on similarities and differences. - Morphology is used to classify living things. The study of the differences in the body form of organisms. - Birds vs. Cats: Go into different morphology groups. - Also classify on biochemistry, body function,behavior.

Speciation The creation of a new species. - geographical barriers separate members  - become reproductively isolated (gene pools change and populations cannot interbreed)  - species cannot interbreed with members of another species.

An example: Darwin’s finches Found 13 different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands. Noticed differences in beaks and questioned it. Wondered if they all had a common ancestor. Today, finches are thought to have originated from Central/South America. Speciation took several million years.

Interbreeding Can a horse and a donkey breed with each other?

Answer Yes! But the offspring (mule) is not fertile. It cannot have offspring of its own.

Express Lab 14 Page 433 When you look at the buttons look for: - differences in function - color differences - size differences - how can it be used (or attached) - what is it made of - compare to a living organism

Classifying Species

Linnaeus Classification System Grouped and classified all extinct and living organisms. Carolus Linnaeus – 1753 Swedish scientist Binomial nomenclature: genus and species name Ex.: Drosophila melanogaster

Samples What is the binomial nomenclature for human beings?

Ammospermophilus harrisi Ammospermophilus leucurus Are the squirrels the same species?

Answer is no, they are not the same species. They live on opposite sides of the Grand Canyon. Example of geographical isolation leading to reproductive isolation. A. leucurus is smaller, has a shorter tail, and has different coloration.

Evidence of Speciation How do we know speciation occurs? In the fossil record!

Punctuated Equilibrium A new species evolves due to a change suddenly due to global changes and mass extinction. Ex.: global warming causes glacial ice to move. As a results ecosystems are also moved.