2. Chapter 7 Key Questions Do infants experience emotions? When?
What sort of mental lives do infants have?
What is attachment in infancy and how does it affect a person’s future social competence?
What roles do other people play in infants’ social development?
What individual differences distinguish one infant from another?
How does nonparental child care impact infants?

3. What Emotions and When? Interest Social Smile Anger Sadness Fear
Page 179

4. Emotions in Infancy: Do Infants Experience Emotional Highs and Lows?
Infants display a fairly wide range of emotional expressions.
According to research, almost all mothers think that by the age of 1 month, their babies have expressed interest and joy. In addition, 84% of mothers think their infants have expressed anger, 75% surprise, 58% fear, and 34% sadness.

5. Emotions in Infancy: Do Infants Experience Emotional Highs and Lows?
Research also finds that interest, distress, and disgust are present at birth, and that other emotions emerge over the next few months.
Although infants display similar kinds of emotions, the degree of emotional expressivity varies among infants. Especially from different cultures.

6. Experiencing Emotions
The fact that children display nonverbal expressions in a manner similar to that of adults does not necessarily mean that their actual experience is identical.
However, most developmental researchers argue that the nonverbal expressions of infants represent actual emotional experiences.
It now seems clear that infants are born with an innate repertoire of emotional expressions.

7. Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety
Stranger anxiety The caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person (6-9 months-begins, but but peaks months)
Separation anxiety The distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs (Begins at 7-8 months and peaks at 14)
Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety represent important social progress. Emphasize cognitive advances and social bonds

8. Smiling Social smile Smiling in response to other individuals
As babies get older, their social smiles become directed toward particular individuals, not just anyone.
By the age of 18 months, social smiling, directed more toward mothers and other caregivers, becomes more frequent than smiling directed toward nonhuman objects.

9. Decoding Others’ Facial and Vocal Expressions
Infants seem to be able to discriminate vocal expressions of emotion at a slightly earlier age than they can interpret facial expressions.
Scientists know more about the sequence in which nonverbal facial decoding ability progresses.
By the time they reach the age of 4 months, infants may already have begun to understand the emotions behind facial and vocal expressions.
This all relates to being around people

10. Social Referencing: Feeling What Others Feel
Social referencing The intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events
Social referencing first occurs around the age of 8 or 9 months.
It is a fairly sophisticated social ability: Infants need it not only to understand the significance of others’ behavior, but also the meaning of those behaviors within the context of a specific situation

11. The Development of Self: Do Infants Know Who They Are?
Self-awareness Knowledge of oneself
At around 17 to 24 months, children begin to show awareness of their own capabilities.
Children’s cultural upbringing also impacts the development of self-recognition.
Foundation of self-concept=multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics (and non-academics), gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others

12. Theory of Mind: Infants’ Perspectives on the Mental Lives of Others— and Themselves
Theory of mind Knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior (Begin to understand that behaviors have meaning)
Infants learn to see other people as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and who have the capacity to respond to infants’ requests.
Empathy An emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person

13. Forming Relationships
The arrival of a newborn brings a dramatic change to a family’s dynamics. (Review page 185)
The bonds that grow between infants and their parents, siblings, family, and others provide the foundation for a lifetime’s worth of social relationships.

15. Attachment-Lorenz and Harlow
* Conrad Lorenz - Attachment is innate. Baby ducks study, or imprinting
Harry Harlow’s Research with monkeys.
Contact comfort is crucial for children. Physical needs such as food alone do not form relationships
This is reason for immediate bonding after birth

16. Harry Harlow

17. Attachment: Forming Social Bonds
Attachment The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
When children experience attachment to a given person, they feel pleasure when they are with them and feel comforted by their presence at times of distress.
As children become more independent, they can progressively roam farther away from their secure base.

18. Attachment: Forming Social Bonds
Ainsworth Strange Situation A sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother
Secure attachment pattern A style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns (Table 7-1)

19. Infant Attachment – page 186

20. Attachment Patterns
Avoidant attachment pattern A style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior

21. Attachment Patterns
Ambivalent attachment pattern A style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her

22. Attachment Patterns
Disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern A style of attachment in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her; they may be the least securely attached children of all

23. Attachment-Which Parent
Who would you say is your home base?
Which parent creates the strongest attachment?
How is attachment culturally different?
(Relate to the concept of independence. Our culture strives for this within our children)

24. Mothers and Attachment
Sensitivity to their infants’ needs and desires is the hallmark of mothers of securely attached infants.
Research has shown that overly responsive mothers are just as likely to have insecurely attached children as under-responsive mothers.
In contrast, others whose communication involves interactional synchrony are more likely to produce secure attachment.

25. Fathers and Attachment
Research has shown that fathers’ expressions of nurturance, warmth, affection, support, and concern are extremely important to their children’s emotional and social well-being.
Certain kinds of psychological disorders, such as substance abuse and depression, have been found to be related more to the father’s than to the mother’s behavior

26. Infant Interactions: Developing a Working Relationship
Research shows that infants may develop multiple attachment relationships.
Variations in attachment show that developing relationships is an ongoing process throughout our lifetimes.

27. Infant Interactions: Developing a Working Relationship
Mutual regulation model The model in which infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond appropriately
Reciprocal socialization A process in which infants’ behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers, which in turn bring about further responses from the infants

28. What is this working relationship?
Infant Signals Need (crying, smiling, hands out) How do we respond? Infant Signals that Needs are (How do we offer care?) met. * Care giver interacts * Infant learns to recognize How do we know infant caregiver. Is OK? What Attachment occurs between does the infant do? caregiver and infant

29. Infant-Caregiver Interation – (page 191)

30. Infants’ Sociability With Their Peers: Infant–Infant Interaction
Babies react positively to the presence of peers from early in life, and they engage in rudimentary forms of social interaction.
Infants’ sociability is expressed in several ways and generally rises with age.
As infants age, they begin to imitate each other.
To some developmentalists, the capacity of young children to engage in imitation suggests that imitation may be inborn.

31. Differences Among Infants
Differences among infants include overall personality and temperament, and differences in the lives they lead.
Differences are also based on their gender, the nature of their families, and the ways in which they are cared for.

32. Personality Development: The Characteristics That Make Infants Unique
Personality The sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another (Complete Personality Survey)
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development The theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others’—and their own—behavior

33. Personality Development: The Characteristics That Make Infants Unique
Trust-versus-mistrust stage According to Erikson, the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers
Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage The period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (aged 18 months to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected

34. Temperament: Stabilities in Infant Behavior
Temperament Patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual
Temperament refers to how children behave, as opposed to what they do or why they do it.

35. Temperament: Stabilities in Infant Behavior
Infants show temperamental differences in general disposition from the time of birth, initially being largely due to genetic factors, and temperament is fairly stable well into adolescence.
However, it is not fixed and unchangeable.
Child rearing practices can modify.

36. Dimensions of Temperament – page 195

37. Categorizing Temperament: Easy, Difficult, and Slow-to-Warm Babies
Easy babies Babies who have a positive disposition; their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable
Difficult babies Babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw

38. Categorizing Temperament: Easy, Difficult, and Slow-to-Warm Babies
Slow-to-warm babies, or Inhibited - Babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly
See video clips

39. The Consequences of Temperament: Does Temperament Matter?
Goodness-of-fit The notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised
Research suggests that certain temperaments are, in general, more adaptive than others.

40. The Consequences of Temperament: Does Temperament Matter?
Temperament seems to be at least weakly related to infants’ attachment to their adult caregivers.
Cultural differences also have a major influence on the consequences of a particular temperament.

41. The Biological Basis of Temperament
From the behavioral genetics perspective, temperamental characteristics are seen as inherited traits that are fairly stable during childhood and across the entire life span.
These traits are viewed as making up the core of personality and playing a substantial role in future development.

42. Gender: Boys in Blue, Girls in Pink
Parents play with boy and girl babies differently.
The behavior exhibited by girls and boys is interpreted in very different ways by adults.
Gender The sense of being male or female
All cultures prescribe gender roles for males and females, but these roles differ greatly between cultures.

43. Gender Differences
There is a considerable amount of disagreement over both the extent and causes of such gender differences, even though most agree that boys and girls do experience at least partially different worlds based on gender.
Differences between male and female infants, however, are generally minor.

44. Gender Roles
Gender differences emerge more clearly as children age and become increasingly influenced by the gender roles that society sets out for them.
Societal encouragement and reinforcement do not completely explain differences in behavior between boys and girls.
Differences in behavior between boys and girls begin in infancy, and continue throughout childhood (and beyond).

45. Family Life in the 21st Century
Key statistics suggest that many infants are being raised in environments in which substantial stressors are present.
Such stress makes it an unusually difficult task to raise children—which is never easy, even under the best circumstances.
On the other hand, society is adapting to the new realities of family life in the 21st century.