1. Clauses The building blocks of sentences: units of syntactic construction made of more than one phrase

2. Complement (C) there is a small group of verbs (copular verbs) which are followed by a complement instead of an object copular verbs:be, feel, seem, appear, and become SV C Sue was feeling very sleepy the complement provides completeness to a copular verb This clause cannot be rearranged to give the passive clause *very sleepy was being felt by Sue

3. Subject complement (C s ) and object complement (C o ) (p. 125) subject complement (C s ): gives us more information about the subject S V C s Armstrong became the first man on the moon object complement (C o ): gives us more information about the object S V O C o Chris made Sarah really angry

4. Complex-transitive verbs complex-transitive verbs: verbs which take both a direct object and an object complement (e.g. make) Chris made Sara really angry Sara is really angry The relationship between O and C o can be expressed using be It is different from the relationship btw an indirect and direct object (ditransitive verbs)

5. Adverbial (A) the adverbial (A) functions like an adverb and may have a wide range of meanings generally adverbials are represented by AdvPs and PPs sometimes adverbials are represented by an entire clause adverbials are not obligatory elements of a clause only a small number of verbs require an adverbial for their complementation (e.g. last, live, put, etc.) e.g.S VA The game lasted almost two hours S V O A Terry put the trash in the bin

6. Adverbial element or object or subject complement? Sometimes it is hard to decide Terry put the rubbish in the dustbin (A) Terry put the boat in danger ( C o ) In danger = object complement, it describes a feature of the object (the boat)

7. Basic clause structures SV SVO SVO i O d SVC s SVOC o SVA SVOA (see p. 128) Any clause can be analyzed in terms of these basic structures. They all contain SV.

8. Active and passive clauses clauses are active or passive according to the verb phrase included in the clause only transitive verbs can be made passive by adding the primary auxiliary be and putting the lexical verb in the past participle (remember that a passive verb phrase always includes one extra element if compared to the corresponding active verb phrase)

9. Active and passive clauses since the active voice is far more typical in English, the passive is seen as a transformation of the active voice S V O Everyone admired her garden S V A Her garden was admired by everyone ● the agent can be omitted in the passive clause ● to express the agent a by-phrase is used ● a by-phrase acts as an adverbial (A) at clause level

10. Passive clauses (see p. 130) the agent is unknown e.g. Mr Constable has been murdered to avoid indicating the agent (maybe you don’t wish to ascribe responsibility) e.g. The window was broken to focus on the affected e.g. The theory is supported by several scholars

11. Finite and non-finite clauses finite clauses: V is marked for tense non-finite clauses: V is not marked for tense non-finite clauses normally occur as part of a higher-level clause which contains a finite V non-finite clauses may or may not have a subject, i.e. if the subject is absent it must be inferred

12. Non-finite clauses (p.131) to-infinitive e.g. The aim was to explore the area bare infinitive e.g. She made Julian wash up -ing participle e.g. Loving wine, he moved to Tuscany -ed participle e.g. Treated kindly, the labrador will be good

13. Main and subordinate clauses within a sentence, a clause is either main (independent) or subordinate (dependent) Any clause which has the potential to stand alone is a main clause. A subordinate clause does not have the capacity to stand alone and is dependent on the main clause

14. more about main clauses a main clause always contains a finite verb (either active or passive) and typically contains an overt subject any clause which is non-finite is subordinate if a sentence consists of only one clause, this must be a main clause

15. Clauses within clauses 6.3 - 6.7 > the five clause elements and their functions The verb element has to be a verb phrase Other elements are less prescribed > p.125 How can clauses fulfill the function of the subject, object, complement and adverbial elements? Any of these clauses will be a subordinate clause

16. Clauses within clauses both finite and non-finite clauses may function as clause elements the process of including non-finite clauses within finite clauses is defined as embedding nominal clauses for S, O and C adverbial clauses for A (p. 134)

17. Clauses within phrases Head nouns and head adjectives can be post-modified by a range of clause types Prepositional phrases can take clauses as their complements Nouns and adjectives can be post-modified by that-clauses (p. 137)

18. Relative clauses They only postmodify nouns and pronouns A Relative clause is normally introduced by a relative pronoun (p. 138) Sometimes the pronoun can be omitted (“zero relative pronoun”) Sometimes we find > preposition + pronoun

19. Relative clauses the noun to which the relative pronoun refers is labeled antecedent The man who/whom/that/Ø I saw bought his shirt there the pronoun whom is used, as an alternative to who, when the antecedent is the object of the relative clause every relative pronoun may be replaced by that -ing and -ed clauses may be viewed as reduced relative clauses The man standing there seems happy

20. Comparative clauses post-modifiers of NPs, AdjPs and AdvPs 1st type: than clause (comparison) than is used as a subordinator the head word is followed by a than-clause than clauses contain a finite verb e.g. Louise is [more talented than her friends (are) AdjP] 2nd type: as…as clause (equivalence) as…as are used as subordinators the first as precedes the head word and the second as introduces the post-modifying clause e.g. Bill’s reactions were not [as quick as Vanessa’s (were) AdjP]

21. Clauses as prepositional complements to post-modify PPs wh-clauses or -ing clauses may be used e.g. This is an event [for whoever is interested PP] [In trying to help PP], she made a mistake

22. Nominal relative clauses all nominal relative clauses begin with a wh- word nominal relative clauses occur where NPs occur e.g. [Where to go NP] was quite a problem She did not know [what to say NP]

23. Negative clauses if the truth of a statement (affirmative clause) is to be denied, a negative clause is needed when do + not (negative particle) is used to make a negative clause do is labeled operator Emma does not (doesn’t) like me very often negative clauses are contracted if negative items other than not are used to form negative clauses (e.g. nothing, no, never, nobody, etc.) the verb is always positive She said nothing about the trip

24. Verbless clauses verbless clauses do not contain a verb element (V) Although unhappy with the decision, Barbara decided to come. “You need to decide for yourself which approach to take” (p. 145)

25. Homework Read Ballard’s book, pages 124 -145 (6.6 – 6.16) Find examples of complex clauses and post them on the blog. You can also try to analyse their structure.