1. Scientific Method

2.  Science: the systematic knowledge of natural and physical phenomena.  Phenomenon: a fact, occurrence or process that can be observed. Scientists watch what happens under controlled conditions, to determine why things happen as they do. From study and observation scientists can discover the predictable behavior patterns of the natural world. For success in the food science laboratory basic guidelines should be followed. Avoid biases, base conclusions on what truly happens, take accurate measurements, observe carefully, keep detailed records, etc.

3.  Applied science: the process of putting scientific knowledge to practical use.  Experiment: a controlled situation that allows a scientist or researcher to determine what causes a change to occur. (ex. the best way to prepare something)  Formulations: recipes in food science.  Replicable: repeatable

4.  To take accurate measurements: ◦ Identify what system of measurement or standard you are using. ◦ Determine what your are tying to measure ◦ Decide what method of measurement will give you the most consistent results. To help scientists all over the world share information an international system has been developed based on metric system – International System of Units (SI) Units measure mass, length, volume, time and temperature.

5.  Mass: measure of the quantity of matter. Gram (g) the mass of 1 cubic centimeter Kilogram (kg) the mass of l liter of water at 4 degrees C (39 degrees F) One kg = 1000 g. Weight – the measure of the force of gravity between two objects. May change with location. For accuracy scientists need measurement that does not change from place to place. Massing compares the substance to a standard mass.

6.  Triple beam balance – works on same principle as a seesaw- same on both sides balances – gravity the same no matter where location.  Electronic balance – faster, easier to use ◦ Calibrate - to adjust measuring instrument to a standard. ◦ To calibrate electronic balance, must measure a standard mass first, the balance will then compare all substances measured to that mass.

7.  Length: the distance between two points  Meter: the standard unit of length in the metric system. ◦ One meter = 39.27 inches ◦ You will usually record length measurements in centimeters and millimeters ◦ One micrometer = 0.000001 meter.

8.  Volume: the amount of space occupied by an object. Volume is a measurement derived from length.  Liter: metric unit for measuring fluid volume.  Beaker: a deep, wide-mouthed container with a pouring lip used to hold substances during experiments.  Erlenmeyer flask: a flat-bottomed, cone-shaped.  Graduated cylinder: tall container used to accurately measure the volume of liquids to the nearest milliliter.  Buret: graduated glass tube with a control valve at the bottom, used to pour an accurate amount of liquid.  Meniscus: curve at the surface of a liquid.

9.  How to measure volume: ◦ Place container on a level surface - Holding at an angle alters the reading ◦ Read volume at eye level - Viewing at an angle will make the liquid look larger than it really is

10.  Time – in most food science experiments time will be measured in seconds. ◦ Record start and stop times using a clock or watch. ◦ Failure to monitor time accurately can invalidate the experiment.

11.  Temperature: measure of heat intensity. ◦ Celsius temperature scale – based on boiling and freezing points of water.  Water freezes at 0 degrees C  Boils at 100 degrees C ◦ Celsius degree – 0.01 of the difference between boiling and freezing. ◦ Fahrenheit – most commonly used in the U.S.  Most lab thermometers marked with both Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.  Always specify units being measured.

12. Scientific Method: system of steps used to solve problems.

13.  Step 1 - Forming a hypothesis Possible explanations for questions and problems Definition: testable predictions that explain certain observations – an educated guess. What am I trying to prove? What questions do I want to answer?

14.  Step 1 – Forming a Hypothesis(cont.) To form a hypothesis, you use inductive and deductive reasoning skills. Inductive – drawing a general conclusion from specific facts or experiences. Deductive – works in the opposite direction. You reach a conclusion about a specific case based on known facts and general principles. * “if/then” statements * the known fact (“if”) leads to a logical conclusion (“then”)

15. Step 1 – Forming a Hypothesis (cont.) Repeat the experiment to see whether results are consistent. If the results are consistent, you may draw valid conclusions from them.

16.  Step 2 – Experimentation  The heart of the scientific method.  Definition: a way to test a hypothesis in order to verify or disprove it.  Identify and create the conditions that put their hypothesis to the test.  Includes :  * List of equipment  *Materials  *Procedure that gives step-by-step instructions and how to use these items and record results

17.  Step 2 - Experimentation (cont.)  Controlling variables  Definition of variables: factors that can change in a n experiment  By controlling all the variables except one, you get more reliable results  Independent variable – a factor that you change  Dependent variable – a factor that changes as a result of the independent variable

18.  Step 3 - Analyzing Data ◦ Data – the information gathered during an experiment. ◦ The Data Table – scientists arrange data in a clear and logical form. ◦ Repeat the experiment to see whether results are consistent. If the results are consistent, you may draw valid conclusions from them.

19.  Step 4 – Reporting the Results ◦ The Report Form – to learn as much as possible form an experiment, you need an organized format for reporting laboratory results.

20.  Step 5 – Developing and revising theories ◦ “No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.” – Albert Einstein ◦ Good science is a cycle of observing, proposing a hypotheses, and experimentation. ◦ A hypothesis that is consistently verified may be established as a theory. ◦ Definition of theory: an explanation based on a body of knowledge gained from many observations and supported by the results of many experiments. ◦ A hypothesis is a possibility; a theory is a probability. ◦ A theory may be refined, broadened or disproved as new discoveries are made.

21.  Step 6 – Conducting Research ◦ Investigating what others have learned about a subject. ◦ Research and experimentation complement each other.  Choose a topic that interest you and let your observations spark your curiosity.  Narrowing the focus  Finding Information

22.  Meta-analysis: when the results of several individual studies are pooled to yield overall conclusions.  When assessing new research, ask the following: ◦ Can the study be interpreted in another way? ◦ Are there any flaws or biases in the method or way the study was conducted? ◦ How does this study fit in with the current body of research on the subject? ◦ What are the limitations of this study?

23. Remember that the scientific process requires ongoing discussion and debate.