2. Mid-term Grades  A (79-90 pts; 88%-100%):15%  B (68- 78 pts; 76%-87%): 8%  C (50-67 pts; 56%-67%):21%  D (35-49 pts; 39%-55%):44%  F (0 - 34 pts; 0%- 38%):13%  A (79-90 pts; 88%-100%):15%  B (68- 78 pts; 76%-87%): 8%  C (50-67 pts; 56%-67%):21%  D (35-49 pts; 39%-55%):44%  F (0 - 34 pts; 0%- 38%):13%

3. 1. Discuss the transactional model as it relates to human development  Bidirectionality of structure and function  Developmental systems model; epigenesis:  Genetic activity (DNA RNA proteins) structural maturation function, activity  Zeskind & Ramey experiment; Gottlieb’s duck experiment; Caspi’s MAOA experiment  Bidirectionality of structure and function  Developmental systems model; epigenesis:  Genetic activity (DNA RNA proteins) structural maturation function, activity  Zeskind & Ramey experiment; Gottlieb’s duck experiment; Caspi’s MAOA experiment

4. 2. Discuss the basic principles of an evolutionary approach to human development  natural selection (define)  Evolution works at all stages of development, but not necessarily equally (grandmother hypothesis)  Evolutionary psychology has an emphasis on adaptationist thinking, which stresses the function of a behavior or trait (pregnancy sickness).  Evolutionary developmental psychology (defined)  Deferred and ontogenetic adaptations (examples)  natural selection (define)  Evolution works at all stages of development, but not necessarily equally (grandmother hypothesis)  Evolutionary psychology has an emphasis on adaptationist thinking, which stresses the function of a behavior or trait (pregnancy sickness).  Evolutionary developmental psychology (defined)  Deferred and ontogenetic adaptations (examples)

5. 3. What are the basic assumptions and principles of Piaget’s theory?  Stage theorists (qualitative differences; invariant order)  Structures (schemes) (structuralism)  Intrinsic activity (constructivism)  Organization  Adaptation Assimilation Accommodation  Equilibration  Stage theorists (qualitative differences; invariant order)  Structures (schemes) (structuralism)  Intrinsic activity (constructivism)  Organization  Adaptation Assimilation Accommodation  Equilibration

7. What is Language?  Arbitrariness  Productivity  Language is creative, or generative  Semanticity  Can represent objects, actions, events, & ideas symbolically  Displacement  Past, future, different location  Duality  Phonology  Syntax  semantics  Arbitrariness  Productivity  Language is creative, or generative  Semanticity  Can represent objects, actions, events, & ideas symbolically  Displacement  Past, future, different location  Duality  Phonology  Syntax  semantics

8. Describing Children’s Language Development  Receptive language > productive language  Early language is telegraphic  Phonological development  Babbling  Morphological development  Morpheme  Free morphemes vs. bound morphemes  Mean length of utterance (MLU)  Overregularization  Wug test  Receptive language > productive language  Early language is telegraphic  Phonological development  Babbling  Morphological development  Morpheme  Free morphemes vs. bound morphemes  Mean length of utterance (MLU)  Overregularization  Wug test

9. Syntactic Development  Negatives  Questions  Passives  Relating events in sentences  Negatives  Questions  Passives  Relating events in sentences

10. Semantic Development  Word spurt productive vocabulary  Productive vocabulary: 22-37 mos.  Receptive vocabulary: 12-17 mos.  Constraints on word learning  Whole-object assmption  Taxonomic assumption  Mutual exclusivity assumption  Overextentions  Underextensions  Word spurt productive vocabulary  Productive vocabulary: 22-37 mos.  Receptive vocabulary: 12-17 mos.  Constraints on word learning  Whole-object assmption  Taxonomic assumption  Mutual exclusivity assumption  Overextentions  Underextensions

11. Nativist Perspective on Language Development  Noam Chomsky  Surface vs.deep structure  Generative grammar  Language acquisition device (LAD)  Universal Grammar  Noam Chomsky  Surface vs.deep structure  Generative grammar  Language acquisition device (LAD)  Universal Grammar

12. Eric Lenneberg  Language is  Species specific  Species uniform  Difficult to retard  Develops in a regular sequence  Has specific anatomical structures  Associated with genetically-related disabilities  Language is  Species specific  Species uniform  Difficult to retard  Develops in a regular sequence  Has specific anatomical structures  Associated with genetically-related disabilities

13. Universal Grammar  All languages have:  Extensive vocabularies divided into different parts-of- speech categories  Words organized into phrases following similar rule structure (X-bar system)  All permit movement of grammatical categories  All use suffixes and prefixes  All languages have:  Extensive vocabularies divided into different parts-of- speech categories  Words organized into phrases following similar rule structure (X-bar system)  All permit movement of grammatical categories  All use suffixes and prefixes

14. Is there a critical period for learning language?  Social deprivation (feral children)  Second-language learning  Johnson & Newport: proficiency in English as function of age of arrival in U.S.  First-language learning of deaf people  Newport: Proficiency in ASL as function of age of exposure  Recovery of function after brain damage  Social deprivation (feral children)  Second-language learning  Johnson & Newport: proficiency in English as function of age of arrival in U.S.  First-language learning of deaf people  Newport: Proficiency in ASL as function of age of exposure  Recovery of function after brain damage

15. Social-Interactionist Perspectives of Language Development  Social-pragmatic view: “Children’s initial skills of linguistic communication are a natural outgrowth of their emerging understanding of other persons as intentional agents” (Carpenter et al., 1998)

16. Child-Directed Speech  AKA: infant-directed speech (IDS); motherese; parentese  Language acquisition support system (LASS, Bruner)  Prosodic features of IDS  Higher acoustic frequency  Wider range of frequencies  Greater incidence of rising countours  Short, grammatical sentences  AKA: infant-directed speech (IDS); motherese; parentese  Language acquisition support system (LASS, Bruner)  Prosodic features of IDS  Higher acoustic frequency  Wider range of frequencies  Greater incidence of rising countours  Short, grammatical sentences

17. Child-Directed Speech  Used across cultures (in varying degrees)  Infants more attentive to adults using IDS as opposed to adult-directed (A-D)speech (Cooper & Aslin, 1990; 1994)  Mothers of deaf children use exaggerated signs to their infants ad infants are more attentive to I-D signs than A-D signs (Masataka, 1998)  Infants can discriminate sounds better in I-D than A-D speech (Trehub et al., 1993)  I-D speech used to regulate infant’s behavior and emotions (Fernald, 1992)  Used across cultures (in varying degrees)  Infants more attentive to adults using IDS as opposed to adult-directed (A-D)speech (Cooper & Aslin, 1990; 1994)  Mothers of deaf children use exaggerated signs to their infants ad infants are more attentive to I-D signs than A-D signs (Masataka, 1998)  Infants can discriminate sounds better in I-D than A-D speech (Trehub et al., 1993)  I-D speech used to regulate infant’s behavior and emotions (Fernald, 1992)

18. Approaches to the Study of Intelligence  Intelligence is “the mental activities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selecting of, any environmental context... (I)ntelligence is not just reactive to the environment but also active in forming it. It offers people an opportunity to respond flexibly to challenging situations” (Sternberg, 1997)

19. The Psychometric Approach to the Study of Intelligence  Psychometric theories of intelligence have as their basis a belief that intelligence can be described in terms of mental factors and that tests can be constructed that reveal individual differences in the factors that underlie mental performance.  Factors are related mental skills that (presumably) affect thinking in a wide range of situations.  Psychometric theories of intelligence have as their basis a belief that intelligence can be described in terms of mental factors and that tests can be constructed that reveal individual differences in the factors that underlie mental performance.  Factors are related mental skills that (presumably) affect thinking in a wide range of situations.

20. Factor analysis  Vocabulary  Reading comprehension  Story completion  Verbal analogies  Verbal factor  3-D rotation  Maze learning  Form-board performance  Spatial factor  Vocabulary  Reading comprehension  Story completion  Verbal analogies  Verbal factor  3-D rotation  Maze learning  Form-board performance  Spatial factor

21. How many factors of intelligence are there?  Spearman’s g – general intelligence  Guilford’s structure-of-the-intellect model – 180  Raymond Cattell’s theory which recognizes g and two second-level factors:  fluid intelligence: biologically determined and is reflected in tests of memory span and most tests of spatial thinking  crystallized intelligence: best reflected in tests of verbal comprehension or social relations, skills that depend more highly on cultural context and experience  Spearman’s g – general intelligence  Guilford’s structure-of-the-intellect model – 180  Raymond Cattell’s theory which recognizes g and two second-level factors:  fluid intelligence: biologically determined and is reflected in tests of memory span and most tests of spatial thinking  crystallized intelligence: best reflected in tests of verbal comprehension or social relations, skills that depend more highly on cultural context and experience

23. IQ Tests  Stanford-Binet  Wechsler scales  Stanford-Binet  Wechsler scales

26. Wechsler scales  WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence)  WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)  WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)  WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence)  WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)  WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)

27. Verbal IQ  Information  Similarities  Arithmetic  Vocabulary  Comprehension  Digit Span (optional)  Information  Similarities  Arithmetic  Vocabulary  Comprehension  Digit Span (optional)

28. Performance IQ  Picture Completion  Coding  Picture Arrangement  Block Design  Object Assembly  Symbol Search  Mazes (optional)  Picture Completion  Coding  Picture Arrangement  Block Design  Object Assembly  Symbol Search  Mazes (optional)

29. Example from the Raven Progressive Matricies Test

31. The Adult  Strong relationships between  IQ and occupational prestige  IQ and job performance  IQ and good health/longevity  IQ decline by age 80 (longitudinal studies  C-S studies show cohort effects  Fluid IQ peaks at about age 24  Crystallized (verbal)unchanged until 80’s  Strong relationships between  IQ and occupational prestige  IQ and job performance  IQ and good health/longevity  IQ decline by age 80 (longitudinal studies  C-S studies show cohort effects  Fluid IQ peaks at about age 24  Crystallized (verbal)unchanged until 80’s

32. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence  Contextual subtheory  Adaptation  Selection  Shaping  Cultural relativism  Experiental subtheory  The ability to deal with novelty and the degree to which processing is automtized.  The job of the child in development is to “render the novel familiar” (Rheingold)  Componential subtheory  Metacomponents  Performance components  Knowledge-acquisition components  Contextual subtheory  Adaptation  Selection  Shaping  Cultural relativism  Experiental subtheory  The ability to deal with novelty and the degree to which processing is automtized.  The job of the child in development is to “render the novel familiar” (Rheingold)  Componential subtheory  Metacomponents  Performance components  Knowledge-acquisition components

34. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

36. Criteria for Intelligence  Potential isolation by brain damage  The existence of savants and prodigies  An identifiable core operation or set of operations  A distinctive developmental history, along with a definable set of expert end-state performances  An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility  Support from experimental psychological tasks and from psychometric findings  Susceptibility to encoding in a system  Potential isolation by brain damage  The existence of savants and prodigies  An identifiable core operation or set of operations  A distinctive developmental history, along with a definable set of expert end-state performances  An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility  Support from experimental psychological tasks and from psychometric findings  Susceptibility to encoding in a system

37. Infancy: The Emerging Self  First 6 months: Discover physical self  Joint attention – 9 months  Difference in perceptions can be shared  Self-recognition – 18 months  Categorical self (age, sex) - 18 – 24 months  Based on cognitive development  Requires social experience  The looking-glass self: a “reflection ”  First 6 months: Discover physical self  Joint attention – 9 months  Difference in perceptions can be shared  Self-recognition – 18 months  Categorical self (age, sex) - 18 – 24 months  Based on cognitive development  Requires social experience  The looking-glass self: a “reflection ”

38. Emotional Development  Primary Emotions  Emerge during first year of life  distress, disgust, interest, surprise, contentment, joy, anger, sadness, fear  Secondary (self-conscious) emotions  Emerge during second year of life and depend on self-awareness and symbolic representation  shame, embarrassment, coyness, shyness, empathy, guilt, jealousy, envy, pride, contempt  Primary Emotions  Emerge during first year of life  distress, disgust, interest, surprise, contentment, joy, anger, sadness, fear  Secondary (self-conscious) emotions  Emerge during second year of life and depend on self-awareness and symbolic representation  shame, embarrassment, coyness, shyness, empathy, guilt, jealousy, envy, pride, contempt

39. Milestones in emotional development: expression, recognition, understanding and self-regulation Emotional expression  1 st year: Primary Emotions  - at birth: distress, interest, disgust  - about 1-3 months: joy  - about 3-6 months: anger, sadness, surprise  - about 6-8 months: fear  2 nd year: Secondary (Self-conscious) Emotions  - about 18-24 months: empathy, envy (jealousy),  - about 30-36 months: pride, guilt, shame, hubris Emotional expression  1 st year: Primary Emotions  - at birth: distress, interest, disgust  - about 1-3 months: joy  - about 3-6 months: anger, sadness, surprise  - about 6-8 months: fear  2 nd year: Secondary (Self-conscious) Emotions  - about 18-24 months: empathy, envy (jealousy),  - about 30-36 months: pride, guilt, shame, hubris

42. Emotional recognition  - about 3 months: sensitivity to abrupt emotional caregiver changes  - about 6 months: (implicit) recognition of all basic emotions  - about 12 months: social referencing (modeling own emotional reactions on the basis of the recognition of other people’s emotional reactions)  - about 3 months: sensitivity to abrupt emotional caregiver changes  - about 6 months: (implicit) recognition of all basic emotions  - about 12 months: social referencing (modeling own emotional reactions on the basis of the recognition of other people’s emotional reactions)

43. Emotional understanding  -about 3-5 years old: Understanding important public aspects of emotions  - (explicit) recognition and naming of emotional expressions  - how external causes affect others’ emotions  - the impact of reminders on emotions  -about 7 years old: Understanding the mentalistic nature of emotions  - the role of desire and belief in emotions  - the discrepancy between expressed and felt emotions  -about 9-11 years old: Understanding complexity of individual emotional behavior  - the mixed nature of emotions  - the relation between morality and emotions  - the role of cognition in emotional regulation  -about 3-5 years old: Understanding important public aspects of emotions  - (explicit) recognition and naming of emotional expressions  - how external causes affect others’ emotions  - the impact of reminders on emotions  -about 7 years old: Understanding the mentalistic nature of emotions  - the role of desire and belief in emotions  - the discrepancy between expressed and felt emotions  -about 9-11 years old: Understanding complexity of individual emotional behavior  - the mixed nature of emotions  - the relation between morality and emotions  - the role of cognition in emotional regulation

44. Emotional self-regulation  - about 1 st year: ability to regulate some disturbing input  - about 3 rd year: ability to hide real emotions  - about 5-11 years: increasing ability to self-regulate emotional states  - about 1 st year: ability to regulate some disturbing input  - about 3 rd year: ability to hide real emotions  - about 5-11 years: increasing ability to self-regulate emotional states

45. Temperament  Seen in infancy  Genetically based  Tendencies to respond in predictable ways  Building blocks of personality  Goodness of fit (Thomas & Chess)  Parenting techniques  Learning to interpret cues  Sensitive responding  Seen in infancy  Genetically based  Tendencies to respond in predictable ways  Building blocks of personality  Goodness of fit (Thomas & Chess)  Parenting techniques  Learning to interpret cues  Sensitive responding

48. Gender Differences  Verbal: Females slightly higher  Spatial: Males higher  Math: Males highest and lowest  Aggression and riskiness: males  Compliant, tactful, cooperative: females  Nurturant, empathic, anxious: females  Play style  Interest in infants  Vulnerability: males  Verbal: Females slightly higher  Spatial: Males higher  Math: Males highest and lowest  Aggression and riskiness: males  Compliant, tactful, cooperative: females  Nurturant, empathic, anxious: females  Play style  Interest in infants  Vulnerability: males

51. Hunting-gatherering hypothesis and the origin of sex differences in spatial cognition: Silverman & Eals  Hunting (male) fostered eye-hand coordination, better navigation skills, mental rotation.  Gathering (female) fostered enhanced object-location memory  Hunting (male) fostered eye-hand coordination, better navigation skills, mental rotation.  Gathering (female) fostered enhanced object-location memory

55. Males > Females: space relations & mental rotation Females > males: object & location memory

56. Infancy  Differential treatment  Differential expectations  By 18 mo: categorical self  By 2 1/2 yr: gender identity  18-24 mo: gender toy preference  Differential treatment  Differential expectations  By 18 mo: categorical self  By 2 1/2 yr: gender identity  18-24 mo: gender toy preference

57. Childhood  3 yrs: gender stereotypes acquired  Gender rigidity until age 6  Gender constancy: by ages 4-6  Gender typed behavior by age 2 1/2  Greater by age 6  Stronger rules for boys  3 yrs: gender stereotypes acquired  Gender rigidity until age 6  Gender constancy: by ages 4-6  Gender typed behavior by age 2 1/2  Greater by age 6  Stronger rules for boys

58. Adolescence  Gender intensification  Pubertal hormonal changes  Preparation for reproductive activities  Gender and peer conformity  Later adolescence more flexible thinking  Gender intensification  Pubertal hormonal changes  Preparation for reproductive activities  Gender and peer conformity  Later adolescence more flexible thinking

59.  Name:____________  Grading Sheet for Assignment 4: Changes in Grandparenting  Scores in all 3 areas are totaled to give a final score from 1-10  I. Content  3 people interviewed (one over 60 and one under 30)  nature of relationship with grandparents described for each person  author ’ s interpretation of how changes in geographic mobility, daycare, and divorce have contributed to the quality of grandparent/grandchild relationships  1 2 3 4 5 6  II. Organization  clear, specific introduction that explains the purpose of the paper  thoughtful conclusion that goes beyond repetition of main points  effective topic sentences  fully developed, unified paragraphs  1 2  Grammar and Mechanics  consistent/appropriate use of present and past tenses  avoidance of sentence fragments and run-on sentences  proper subject-verb agreement  correct punctuation  correct spelling  appropriate integration of quotations  1 2  Total Score =  Name:____________  Grading Sheet for Assignment 4: Changes in Grandparenting  Scores in all 3 areas are totaled to give a final score from 1-10  I. Content  3 people interviewed (one over 60 and one under 30)  nature of relationship with grandparents described for each person  author ’ s interpretation of how changes in geographic mobility, daycare, and divorce have contributed to the quality of grandparent/grandchild relationships  1 2 3 4 5 6  II. Organization  clear, specific introduction that explains the purpose of the paper  thoughtful conclusion that goes beyond repetition of main points  effective topic sentences  fully developed, unified paragraphs  1 2  Grammar and Mechanics  consistent/appropriate use of present and past tenses  avoidance of sentence fragments and run-on sentences  proper subject-verb agreement  correct punctuation  correct spelling  appropriate integration of quotations  1 2  Total Score =

60. Social-role Hypothesis (Eagly)  Roles create stereotypes  Context and culture important  Changes occurring today  Psychological differences  Few and small  Important  Differential roles continue  Roles create stereotypes  Context and culture important  Changes occurring today  Psychological differences  Few and small  Important  Differential roles continue

61. Biosocial Theory  Money and Ehrhardt  Biological development  Presence of Y chromosome  Testosterone masculinizes brain and nervous system  Social influences and labeling at birth  Gender behavior through social interaction  Money and Ehrhardt  Biological development  Presence of Y chromosome  Testosterone masculinizes brain and nervous system  Social influences and labeling at birth  Gender behavior through social interaction

62. Origins of Sexual Orientation  No evidence for Freudian interpretations (e.g., strong mother, weak father)  Prenatal hormones influence adult sexual orientation  Homosexual parents as likely to have heterosexual children as heterosexual parents.  No evidence for Freudian interpretations (e.g., strong mother, weak father)  Prenatal hormones influence adult sexual orientation  Homosexual parents as likely to have heterosexual children as heterosexual parents.

64. Parental Investment Theory (Robert Trivers, 1972)  There is a conflict for both males and females in how much time, effort, and resources to invest in mating versus parenting  In most mammalian species:  Females invest more than males (female investment is obligatory)  Gamete size (egg larger than sperm)  Internal fertilization and gestation  Nursing  Childcare  Ancestral men and women faced different adaptive problems and evolved different adaptive mechanisms (this is true for the sexes of most animals)  There is a conflict for both males and females in how much time, effort, and resources to invest in mating versus parenting  In most mammalian species:  Females invest more than males (female investment is obligatory)  Gamete size (egg larger than sperm)  Internal fertilization and gestation  Nursing  Childcare  Ancestral men and women faced different adaptive problems and evolved different adaptive mechanisms (this is true for the sexes of most animals)

65. Cognitive Theories  Kohlberg: self socialization  Stage-like changes  Gender identity: ages 2-3  Label themselves correctly  Gender stability: ages 3-4  Stable over time  Gender consistency: ages 5-7  Stable across situations  Kohlberg: self socialization  Stage-like changes  Gender identity: ages 2-3  Label themselves correctly  Gender stability: ages 3-4  Stable over time  Gender consistency: ages 5-7  Stable across situations

66. Adulthood  Gender roles over the life-span  At marriage: greater differentiation  Birth of child: it increases more  Parental imperative  Middle age and older: Androgyny  Shift - does not mean switch  Gender roles over the life-span  At marriage: greater differentiation  Birth of child: it increases more  Parental imperative  Middle age and older: Androgyny  Shift - does not mean switch

67. Sexuality Over the Life Span  Infant sexuality: CNS arousal  Childhood  Learn about reproduction  Curiosity and exploration  Sexual abuse: like PTSD  Adolescence: sexual identity, orientation  Double standard: decline?  Infant sexuality: CNS arousal  Childhood  Learn about reproduction  Curiosity and exploration  Sexual abuse: like PTSD  Adolescence: sexual identity, orientation  Double standard: decline?

68. Adult Sexuality  Most are married  Gradual declines  Individual differences  Married have more sex  Male sexual peak: age 18  Female sexual peak: age 38  Most are married  Gradual declines  Individual differences  Married have more sex  Male sexual peak: age 18  Female sexual peak: age 38

69. Men have greater sex drive than women (controversial)  Men engage in more sexual daydreaming than women  Men report experiencing more spontaneous sexual desire than women  Gay men report having sex more frequently than lesbians  Men report initiating sex more than women  Men masturbate more than women  Women report higher frequency of low libido than men  Men more likely to pay money or present gifts for sex than women  Men engage in more sexual daydreaming than women  Men report experiencing more spontaneous sexual desire than women  Gay men report having sex more frequently than lesbians  Men report initiating sex more than women  Men masturbate more than women  Women report higher frequency of low libido than men  Men more likely to pay money or present gifts for sex than women

71. Older Adults  Stereotype: Asexuality  Reality: decline  Diseases and disabilities  Social attitudes  Lack of a partner  Physiologically able in old age  Stereotype: Asexuality  Reality: decline  Diseases and disabilities  Social attitudes  Lack of a partner  Physiologically able in old age

73. Incest Avoidance  Westermark (childhood familiarity results in incest avoidance) versus Freud (Oedipal and Electra complexes)  Wolf: “minor marriages” in Taiwan  Compared to “major marriages,” minor  produced 40% fewer children  had three times higher divorce rate  wives more likely to admit to extramarital affairs  Shepher: Israeli kibbutzim  Of 2869 couples from 211 kibbutzim, no marriages between members from the same kibbutz.  Westermark (childhood familiarity results in incest avoidance) versus Freud (Oedipal and Electra complexes)  Wolf: “minor marriages” in Taiwan  Compared to “major marriages,” minor  produced 40% fewer children  had three times higher divorce rate  wives more likely to admit to extramarital affairs  Shepher: Israeli kibbutzim  Of 2869 couples from 211 kibbutzim, no marriages between members from the same kibbutz.

74. Post-adoption incest and genetic sexual attraction  highly intense, sexual attraction, often leading to incestuous relations, experienced by close kin who have been separated at or soon after birth and reunited as adults.  Most data on this phenomenon are anecdotal  Greenberg and Littlewood’s (1995) survey of post-adoption counselors in London indicated that about 50% of clients who had been reunited with kin as adults experienced, “strong, sexual feelings.”  highly intense, sexual attraction, often leading to incestuous relations, experienced by close kin who have been separated at or soon after birth and reunited as adults.  Most data on this phenomenon are anecdotal  Greenberg and Littlewood’s (1995) survey of post-adoption counselors in London indicated that about 50% of clients who had been reunited with kin as adults experienced, “strong, sexual feelings.”

75. Mechanisms for Westermark effect  Olfaction  Evidence of the functions of pheromones in animals and humans for both kin recognition and sexual attraction  Parents can distinguish between the odors of their biological children, except in the case of identical twins  Mothers cannot identify stepchildren by odor  Preadolescent children can identify their full sibs but not half sibs or stepsibs by odor  Olfactory cues may mediate favoritism of blood relatives  Olfaction  Evidence of the functions of pheromones in animals and humans for both kin recognition and sexual attraction  Parents can distinguish between the odors of their biological children, except in the case of identical twins  Mothers cannot identify stepchildren by odor  Preadolescent children can identify their full sibs but not half sibs or stepsibs by odor  Olfactory cues may mediate favoritism of blood relatives

76. Weisfeld et al. (2003), studying human families  immediate family members exhibited particular patterns of aversions to each other’s odors.  Fathers showed aversions to their daughters’, but not to their sons’ odors.  Mothers did not display any aversions  Opposite-sexed, but not same-sexed sibling pairs, showed aversions to each other’s odors.  These patterns occurred whether or not the source of the odor was recognized, and whether or not the individuals involved were biologically related.  immediate family members exhibited particular patterns of aversions to each other’s odors.  Fathers showed aversions to their daughters’, but not to their sons’ odors.  Mothers did not display any aversions  Opposite-sexed, but not same-sexed sibling pairs, showed aversions to each other’s odors.  These patterns occurred whether or not the source of the odor was recognized, and whether or not the individuals involved were biologically related.

77.  Social cognition: ability to understand psychological differences in others  Adopt other’s perspectives  Theory of Mind: False Belief Task  Where will Sally look for marble when she returns? (See next slide)  Used to predict and explain human behavior before 4 yrs of age  “he wanted to...” “he intended to..”  Social cognition: ability to understand psychological differences in others  Adopt other’s perspectives  Theory of Mind: False Belief Task  Where will Sally look for marble when she returns? (See next slide)  Used to predict and explain human behavior before 4 yrs of age  “he wanted to...” “he intended to..”

78. Figure 13.1

79. Developing a Theory of Mind  Attentive parents  Joint attention  Pretend play  Imitation  Social experiences  Talking about mental states  Sensitivity to feelings of others  Attentive parents  Joint attention  Pretend play  Imitation  Social experiences  Talking about mental states  Sensitivity to feelings of others

81. Attachment Theory  Bowlby: A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion  Measured by:  proximity behaviors,  distress upon separation,  extent to which the attachment figure can calm infant  Helps regulate distress by proximity seeking  By about 6-7 months  Ainsworth: special, irreplaceable people  Desire to maintain proximity  Derive a sense of security  Bowlby: A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion  Measured by:  proximity behaviors,  distress upon separation,  extent to which the attachment figure can calm infant  Helps regulate distress by proximity seeking  By about 6-7 months  Ainsworth: special, irreplaceable people  Desire to maintain proximity  Derive a sense of security

82. Ethology  Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting  Critical period  Irreversible  Humans: Attachment  Sensitive period  Predisposed  Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting  Critical period  Irreversible  Humans: Attachment  Sensitive period  Predisposed

83. Theories of Attachment  Psychoanalytic Theory: “I love you because you feed me”  Learning Theory: “Rewards lead to love”  Cognitive-Developmental Theory: “To love you I must know you”  Ethological (Evolutionary) Theory: “Perhaps I was born to love”  Psychoanalytic Theory: “I love you because you feed me”  Learning Theory: “Rewards lead to love”  Cognitive-Developmental Theory: “To love you I must know you”  Ethological (Evolutionary) Theory: “Perhaps I was born to love”

84. Infant’s Attachment to Caregiver  Social responsiveness  At birth: undiscriminating  2-6 mo: preferences develop  Proximity seeking  6 mo to 3 yr  Attachment figures  Mental representation abilities needed  Social responsiveness  At birth: undiscriminating  2-6 mo: preferences develop  Proximity seeking  6 mo to 3 yr  Attachment figures  Mental representation abilities needed

85. Caregiver’s Attachment to Infant  Early contact not crucial nor sufficient  Neonatal reflexes endearing: e.g., smiling  Cooing and babbling: early conversations  Synchronized routines  Peek-A-Boo  Sensitive responding a must  Over-stimulation/under-stimulation  Early contact not crucial nor sufficient  Neonatal reflexes endearing: e.g., smiling  Cooing and babbling: early conversations  Synchronized routines  Peek-A-Boo  Sensitive responding a must  Over-stimulation/under-stimulation

86. Attachment-Related Fears  Separation anxiety: 6-8 mo  Peaks around 14-18 mo  Gradually wanes  Stranger anxiety: 8-10 mo  Declines during 2 nd yr  Ainsworth: secure base for exploration  Separation anxiety: 6-8 mo  Peaks around 14-18 mo  Gradually wanes  Stranger anxiety: 8-10 mo  Declines during 2 nd yr  Ainsworth: secure base for exploration

87. Table 14.1, page 394

88. Quality of Attachment  Caregiver provides “contact comfort”  Ainsworth: Strange Situation Test  Secure attachment: most  Insecure attachment categories  Inconsistent care > resistant  Insensitive stimulation > avoidant  Rejection, impatient, resentful  Intrusive  Abusive > disorganized/disoriented  Caregiver provides “contact comfort”  Ainsworth: Strange Situation Test  Secure attachment: most  Insecure attachment categories  Inconsistent care > resistant  Insensitive stimulation > avoidant  Rejection, impatient, resentful  Intrusive  Abusive > disorganized/disoriented

89. Table 14.2, page 395

90. Later Outcomes  Securely attached child  Cognitively and socially competent  Expect positive reactions  Insecurely attached child  Withdrawn, dependent, fearful  Less competent  Patterns last through adolescence  Securely attached child  Cognitively and socially competent  Expect positive reactions  Insecurely attached child  Withdrawn, dependent, fearful  Less competent  Patterns last through adolescence

91.  Attachment to fathers, grandparents, etc.  Can compensate for poor attachment  Secure attachments may change  Stressful events: divorce, illness  Insecure attachments may change  Lifestyle improvements  Later relationships influenced by nature of early attachment  Attachment to fathers, grandparents, etc.  Can compensate for poor attachment  Secure attachments may change  Stressful events: divorce, illness  Insecure attachments may change  Lifestyle improvements  Later relationships influenced by nature of early attachment

93. Rate of attaining puberty for girls is influenced by:  Father absence (e.g., Subrey, 1990)  Socioeconomic stress (e.g., Ellis et al., 1999)  Maternal depression (e.g., Ellis & Graber, 2000)  Quality of father-daughter relationships (e.g., Ellis et al., 1999)  Father absence (e.g., Subrey, 1990)  Socioeconomic stress (e.g., Ellis et al., 1999)  Maternal depression (e.g., Ellis & Graber, 2000)  Quality of father-daughter relationships (e.g., Ellis et al., 1999)

94. Distribution (%) of the types of attachment types (secure, insecure avoidant and insecure ambivalent) in several countries CountrySecureInsecure AvoidantInsecure Ambivalent USA652013 Germany43468 Sweden76224 Netherland s 72244 Japan77023 Israel55833

96. Interactions during childhood  During childhood, peer social interaction focuses on play  Sex segregation common  Physical aggression during early childhood, relative to toddlerhood, decreases while verbal aggression shows the opposite pattern (Coie & Dodge, 1998).  Relational aggression: manipulating social relations by shunning and spreading rumors, among other strategies.  Relational aggression increases with age as children’s cognitive abilities improve, but is used more by girls than boys  During childhood, peer social interaction focuses on play  Sex segregation common  Physical aggression during early childhood, relative to toddlerhood, decreases while verbal aggression shows the opposite pattern (Coie & Dodge, 1998).  Relational aggression: manipulating social relations by shunning and spreading rumors, among other strategies.  Relational aggression increases with age as children’s cognitive abilities improve, but is used more by girls than boys

97.  Peer-directed aggression is first observed at the end of the first year of life and typically occurs in the context of object disputes (Coie & Dodge, 1998).  Up to 50% of the interaction between toddlers is conflictual, though not aggressive  Peer-directed aggression is first observed at the end of the first year of life and typically occurs in the context of object disputes (Coie & Dodge, 1998).  Up to 50% of the interaction between toddlers is conflictual, though not aggressive

98. Bullies and victims  The form of aggression that comes to the fore during late childhood and adolescence is bullying and victimization  Bullies are more frequently boys than girls and represent about 10% of the elementary school population in most industrialized counties  boys use physical aggression in bullying same-sex peers and girls use relational aggression with other girls  Victims of bullies tend to be physically frail children with few friends or affiliates  The form of aggression that comes to the fore during late childhood and adolescence is bullying and victimization  Bullies are more frequently boys than girls and represent about 10% of the elementary school population in most industrialized counties  boys use physical aggression in bullying same-sex peers and girls use relational aggression with other girls  Victims of bullies tend to be physically frail children with few friends or affiliates

99. Aggression as a solution to adaptive problems  Co-opt resources of others  Defend against an attack  Inflict costs on intrasexual rivals  Negotiate status and power hierarchies  Deter rivals from future aggression  Deter long-term mates from sexual infidelity  Co-opt resources of others  Defend against an attack  Inflict costs on intrasexual rivals  Negotiate status and power hierarchies  Deter rivals from future aggression  Deter long-term mates from sexual infidelity

100. Potential benefits of aggression must be balanced with costs  Aggression tends to cause retaliatory aggression  Aggression to maintain reputation and status  “Honor” killings of sisters/daughters to maintain status in community  Willingness of victim to retaliate  Reputation as both a bully or victim can be deleterious  Aggression tends to cause retaliatory aggression  Aggression to maintain reputation and status  “Honor” killings of sisters/daughters to maintain status in community  Willingness of victim to retaliate  Reputation as both a bully or victim can be deleterious

101. Young-male syndrome  Males, at all ages, engage in more physical aggression than females and the aggression that adolescent and young-adult males engage in is more likely to lead to serious injury and sometimes death  Greater male aggression can be explained in terms of parental investment theory Intrasex competition Impress females via competitive risk taking  Risk taking and accidents are frequently the result of competitive or “show-off” behavior, with the purpose being to compete with other members of the same sex or to impress members of the opposite sex  Males, at all ages, engage in more physical aggression than females and the aggression that adolescent and young-adult males engage in is more likely to lead to serious injury and sometimes death  Greater male aggression can be explained in terms of parental investment theory Intrasex competition Impress females via competitive risk taking  Risk taking and accidents are frequently the result of competitive or “show-off” behavior, with the purpose being to compete with other members of the same sex or to impress members of the opposite sex

102. Death rates dues to vehicular accidents per 100,000 resident population in the United States for males and females, 1995-1997

103. Percentage of trauma admissions for violence at LA Medical Center for 3 months in 1990, by age (adapted from Cairns et al., 1991)

104. Adolescent and young-adult males are more likely to be both the victims and perpetrators of homicide

105. Homicide victimization rate per 100,000 resident population in the United States, 1995-1997: Males

106. Homicide victimization rate per 100,000 resident population in the United States, 1995-1997: Females

107. Dominance hierarchies  Status with a group  Influences access to resources, such as food and mates  Establishing high status achieved by combination of aggression and cooperative interaction  Dominance hierarchies:  Reduce antagonism within the group  Distribute scare resources  Focus division of labor  Status with a group  Influences access to resources, such as food and mates  Establishing high status achieved by combination of aggression and cooperative interaction  Dominance hierarchies:  Reduce antagonism within the group  Distribute scare resources  Focus division of labor

108. Establishing Dominance Hierarchies  “leaders” recognized early,even in transient groups.  In children, top and bottom of hierarchies established first, middle areas later  Even preverbal toddlers in groups form dominance hierarchies  In childhood, hierarchies usually in same-sex groups  Interaction in same-sex groups serves to foster development of social skills  Children with mostly opposite-sex friends are less-well adjusted than children with mostly same-sex friends (Kovacs et al., 1996)  “leaders” recognized early,even in transient groups.  In children, top and bottom of hierarchies established first, middle areas later  Even preverbal toddlers in groups form dominance hierarchies  In childhood, hierarchies usually in same-sex groups  Interaction in same-sex groups serves to foster development of social skills  Children with mostly opposite-sex friends are less-well adjusted than children with mostly same-sex friends (Kovacs et al., 1996)

109. Both aggression and affiliative behaviors used to establish and maintain dominance  Evidence in:  chimpanzees (de Waal)  preschoolers (Hawley)  school children and adolescence (Pellegrini)  In preschoolers level of aggression positively associated with popularity (Hawley; Vollenweider et al.)  Robbers Cave study (Sherif et al.)  Fifth-grade boys at summer camp  Rattlers and Eagles  Evidence in:  chimpanzees (de Waal)  preschoolers (Hawley)  school children and adolescence (Pellegrini)  In preschoolers level of aggression positively associated with popularity (Hawley; Vollenweider et al.)  Robbers Cave study (Sherif et al.)  Fifth-grade boys at summer camp  Rattlers and Eagles

111. Outcomes of Parenting Styles  Children of authoritative parents  Adjusted, responsible, high achievement  Children of authoritarian parents  Moody, unhappy, aimless  Children of permissive parents  Low: self-control, independence, achievers  Children of neglectful/uninvolved parents  Behavior problems, antisocial  Children of authoritative parents  Adjusted, responsible, high achievement  Children of authoritarian parents  Moody, unhappy, aimless  Children of permissive parents  Low: self-control, independence, achievers  Children of neglectful/uninvolved parents  Behavior problems, antisocial

113. Stepparent Investment: Cinderella or Marsha Brady?  Stepparents should show little interest in the welfare of children who are clearly not their biological offspring  Why should stepfathers invest at all?  Stepparenting as mating opportunity. The best strategy for a man when looking for a new mate may be to act solicitously toward the potential mate’s children  It’s more difficult for stepparents to develop strong emotional bonds with stepchildren than with biological children  In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, 1975  In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, 1975)  Stepparents should show little interest in the welfare of children who are clearly not their biological offspring  Why should stepfathers invest at all?  Stepparenting as mating opportunity. The best strategy for a man when looking for a new mate may be to act solicitously toward the potential mate’s children  It’s more difficult for stepparents to develop strong emotional bonds with stepchildren than with biological children  In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, 1975  In one study of middle-class stepfamilies in the United States, only 53% of stepfathers and 25% of stepmothers claimed to have any “parental feelings” whatsoever for their stepchildren (Duberman, 1975)

114. How much do stepparents invest?  Anderson et al. (1999a,b): South Africa & U.S.: stepfathers spent significantly more money on their natural children than on their stepchildren  Zvoch, 1999: Stepfamilies saved less money for their children’s education, started savings accounts for children later, and expected to spend less money for their child’s education in the future.  Stepfathers spend significantly less time with their stepchildren than with their natural children (3 hours less per week with their stepchildren than with their natural children); play with them less often. Pattern found cross culturally: U.s. South Africa, Caribbean islands  less money is spent on food when a child is reared by an adoptive, foster, or stepmother than a biological mother (Case et al.)  Anderson et al. (1999a,b): South Africa & U.S.: stepfathers spent significantly more money on their natural children than on their stepchildren  Zvoch, 1999: Stepfamilies saved less money for their children’s education, started savings accounts for children later, and expected to spend less money for their child’s education in the future.  Stepfathers spend significantly less time with their stepchildren than with their natural children (3 hours less per week with their stepchildren than with their natural children); play with them less often. Pattern found cross culturally: U.s. South Africa, Caribbean islands  less money is spent on food when a child is reared by an adoptive, foster, or stepmother than a biological mother (Case et al.)

115. “Wicked” stepparents?  Daly & Wilson, in survey of Canadian households: Children were 40 times more likely to be abused if they lived with a stepparent versus two natural parents.  This difference remained even when possible influencing factors that may be associated with stepfamilies, such as poverty, the mother’s age, and family size, were statistically controlled. Given these and similar findings  “Stepparenthood per se remains the single most powerful risk factor for child abuse that has yet been identified.”  Child homicide: Studies in different countries report that for children under 2-years of age, homicide 40 to 100 times more likely at hands of stepparent (usually stepfather) than natural parent.  Daly & Wilson, in survey of Canadian households: Children were 40 times more likely to be abused if they lived with a stepparent versus two natural parents.  This difference remained even when possible influencing factors that may be associated with stepfamilies, such as poverty, the mother’s age, and family size, were statistically controlled. Given these and similar findings  “Stepparenthood per se remains the single most powerful risk factor for child abuse that has yet been identified.”  Child homicide: Studies in different countries report that for children under 2-years of age, homicide 40 to 100 times more likely at hands of stepparent (usually stepfather) than natural parent.

116. The risk of being killed by a stepparent versus a natural parent in relation to child’s age: Canada, 1974-1983 (from Day & Wilson, 1988)

117. Divorce  High-risk couples  married 7 years  Teen-age marriages, short courtship  Pregnant before marriage  Low SES  Post-divorce crisis  1-2 years  At risk for depression  High-risk couples  married 7 years  Teen-age marriages, short courtship  Pregnant before marriage  Low SES  Post-divorce crisis  1-2 years  At risk for depression

118. Children of Divorce  Often angry, fearful, depressed, or guilty  Custodial mother overwhelmed  Behavior problems  Peer relationships suffer/change  Sometimes negative effects are lasting  1-2 year adjustment  Often angry, fearful, depressed, or guilty  Custodial mother overwhelmed  Behavior problems  Peer relationships suffer/change  Sometimes negative effects are lasting  1-2 year adjustment

120. Theories of Aging and Death  Programmed theories  Maximum life span (species specific)  Hayflick Limit  Damage Theories  Free radicals  Interaction of the two – or more  Programmed theories  Maximum life span (species specific)  Hayflick Limit  Damage Theories  Free radicals  Interaction of the two – or more

122. The Child  The mature concept of death  Finality, irreversibility, universality, biological causality  Age 3-5: universality  Dead live under altered circumstances  Reversible - life sleep  Age 5-7: finality, irreversibility  Level of cognitive development, experience  The mature concept of death  Finality, irreversibility, universality, biological causality  Age 3-5: universality  Dead live under altered circumstances  Reversible - life sleep  Age 5-7: finality, irreversibility  Level of cognitive development, experience

123. The Natural Emergence of ‘ Afterlife ’ Reasoning with Jesse Bering & Carlos Hern á ndez Blasi  Preschoolers, 10/11-year olds; adults  View puppet show of anthropomorphized mouse getting eaten by alligator  Preschoolers, 10/11-year olds; adults  View puppet show of anthropomorphized mouse getting eaten by alligator

124. Participants asked series of questions about the continuity of biological, psychobiological, and psychological functioning

125. Biological  Will he ever need to eat food again?”*  Does his brain still work?”*  Will he ever grow up to be an old mouse?”  Will he ever need to drink water again?”  Will he ever need to eat food again?”*  Does his brain still work?”*  Will he ever grow up to be an old mouse?”  Will he ever need to drink water again?”

126. Psychobiological  Is he still thirsty?”*  Is he still hungry?”*  Is he still sleepy?”  Does he still feel sick?”  Is he still thirsty?”*  Is he still hungry?”*  Is he still sleepy?”  Does he still feel sick?”

127. Perceptual  Can he still hear the birds singing?”*  Can he still taste the yucky grass he ate?”*  Can he still smell the flowers?”  Can he see where he is?”  Can he still hear the birds singing?”*  Can he still taste the yucky grass he ate?”*  Can he still smell the flowers?”  Can he see where he is?”

128. Desire  Does he still wish he didn’t have a brother?”*  Does he still want to go home?”*  Does he still hope he gets better at math?”  Does he still wish he didn’t have a brother?”*  Does he still want to go home?”*  Does he still hope he gets better at math?”

129. Emotional  Is still sad because he can’t find his way home?”*  Is still angry at his brother?”*  Still loves his mom?”  Is still scared of the alligator?”  Is still sad because he can’t find his way home?”*  Is still angry at his brother?”*  Still loves his mom?”  Is still scared of the alligator?”

130. Epistemic  Is still thinking about his brother?”*  Still believes he’s smarter than his brother?”*  Knows that he’s not alive?”  Still believes his mom is the nicest grownup?”  Is still thinking about his brother?”*  Still believes he’s smarter than his brother?”*  Knows that he’s not alive?”  Still believes his mom is the nicest grownup?”

131. Percentage of discontinuity responses by age and question type

132. Percentage of 5/6-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question-type

133. Percentage of 8/9-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question-type

134. Percentage of 11/12-year-olds participants providing discontinuity responses, by school- and question type

135. Percentage of participants providing discontinuity responses, by age and question type

136. The Adult  Death of family member difficult  Death of spouse more expected with age  More difficult when young (non-normative)  Elevated levels of stress  Risk increases for illness and death  Signs of recovery after 2 years  Death of family member difficult  Death of spouse more expected with age  More difficult when young (non-normative)  Elevated levels of stress  Risk increases for illness and death  Signs of recovery after 2 years