1. Introduction AP Comparative Government

2. Comparative Method Cold War – 1 st, 2 nd, 3 rd Worlds Today “Advanced” democracy – high level of economic development, open elections (Britain, US) Communist/Post-Communist – system that limits freedoms to divide wealth equally (Russia, China) Less developed, newly industrializing – rapid growth, political instability (Mexico, Iran, Nigeria)

3. Nation vs. state Nation – a group of people who share common cultural traits (ethnicity, language, religion) Nationalism - a sense of self identification enabling them to be distinguished from other groups of people State – a political unit (think “Country”) These political units are separated by legal borders Every “state” has the right to make laws for the territory within the boundaries

4. States: Right to issue rules: states claim the right to issue rules binding for people within their borders––laws, administrative regulations, and court decisions. Enforcement: in order to survive, states need to be able to enforce the rules (both internally and against external threats) Legitimacy: long-term stability requires that a state has legitimacy, that is, a significant segment of the citizenry must believe that the state acts with moral authority

5. Nation vs. state Nations Arabs Latino Jews Palestinians Scottish Quebecois Kurds Koreans Protestants States Iran Mexico Israel UK Canada Iraq South Korea USA

6. Regime The set of rules by which political power is allocated. How leaders are selected, whom they answer to, what powers and duties they have, and how they are removed. Two main types: Democracies Authoritarian regimes Regime change (from D to A or vice versa): more common than state change

7. Sovereignty: sovereignty—the ability to carryout actions or policies within a territory independently from external actors or internal rivals Internal Sovereignty Right to determine matters regarding one’s own citizens without intervention External Sovereignty Right to conclude binding agreements with other states

8. Sovereignty Today Traditional forms joined by new forms Supranational organizations European Union North American Free Trade Agreement United Nations Eg: 1994 17 peacekeeping missions, 100,000 peacekeepers United Nations subunits or related orgs: FAO, WHO, UNESCO, IMF, World Bank

9. Legitimacy Belief of people that their gov has the right to rule over them Hobbes – people give up rights to the gov in exchange for security Locke – people give up rights to the gov in exchange for protection of property

10. bases of legitimacy: historical traditions/longevity Built by habit and custom over time, stresses history, strongly institutionalized—rituals and ceremonies reinforce it—change difficult-- assumes something is valid b/c “that’s the way its always been “-they are inseparable from the people themselves The Queen delivers her speech in the House of Lords. Photograph: PA

11. bases of legitimacy: Ideology The Three Represents Forces of production, culture and masses

12. Charisma as basis of legitimacy embodied by a person who can move public thru ideas and way they are presented—some individuals posses this magnetism— Built on force of ideas and presence of leader—weakly institutionalized—so tenuous—tho often gets transformed into traditional legit

13. Rational-Legal legitimacy Built on rules and procedures and the offices that enforce those rules; strongly institutionalized; the office is legit—not the person—once person leaves, that individual loses the legit

14. Elections are a form of legitimacy? True False

15. Bases of legitimacy: Elections (“consent”) Peaceful transitions of power (retirement age in China followed) 2000: A watershed in Mexican Politics

16. Elections and Legitimacy What comes AFTER elections is important! Does acceptance of election outcomes reflect legitimacy? Even in authoritarian systems, elections facilitate participation. What if election outcomes are challenged? How the government responds to post-election challenges impacts its legitimacy.

17. Post-election Protests & Government Response Leaders of losing parties often challenge election results and promote protests that the government must address. Failure to stop such protests undermines the government’s ability to rule and its legitimacy. Challenged results Post-election protests Government response

18. Post-election Protests and Legitimacy HOW the government addresses post-election protests is important. Can it be done without coercion? Is coercion needed? Post-election protests No coercion Reinforces legitimacy? Coercion Undercuts legitimacy?

19. Post-election Remedies Matter! ElectionResults challenged Adjudicated by election courts or commission Reinforces legitimacy? No institutions for dispute resolution Undercuts legitimacy? Results accepted Reinforces legitimacy? Institutions and processes to resolve election disputes help to absorb conflict. Forms…election commissions or courts

20. What to look for after elections… Percentage of eligible votes cast Would you believe 100% participation? Size of “gap” between winner and losers What’s sparks protests, close races or landslides? Reports of post-election protests and government responses How widespread/intense are protests? Is force is used to suppress them? Length of time between election date and date of final declaration of winner Is a longer period “better”?

21. Three Cases Mexico Nigeria Iran 2006 Calderon win challenged 2007 Yar’Adua win challenged 2009 Ahmadinejad win challenged

22. Mexico 2006 Turnout: 59% Winner: Filipe Calderon (35.89%) Closest rival: Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (35.31%) Election date: July 2 Confirmed: September 5 by the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judiciary (TEPJF)

23. Nigeria 2007 Turnout: est. 57.5% Winner: Amadu Yar’Adua (70%) Closest rival: Muhammadu Buhari (18.72%) Election date: April 21 Confirmed: April 23 by Independent National Election Commission (INEC)

24. Iran 2009 Turnout: 85% Winner: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (62.63%) Closest rival: Mir-Hossein Mousavi (33.75%) Election date: June 12 Confirmed: June 29 by the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei (Guardian Council asked him to extend the required election complaint period an additional five days.)

25. Rule of law: government can take no action not authorized by law and citizens can only be punished for actions that violate the law--constitution is supreme law Constitutions: define both the role and constituent parts of a government and the limits and obligations of government with respect to the rights of citizens Rational-Legal legitimacy Means citizens are not obeying the person, but the office Transparency FOIA in the UK and Mexico

26. Unwritten constitution Lack of a written constitution

27. Law: Collection of rules laid down by government Common Law: (case law): judicial decisions based on precedent (stare decisis). Emphasis on judicial independence to interpret the law. Code Law: detailed statutes produced and interpreted by the government. Code is authority not previous judicial decisions. Religious Law: Sharia (Islamic Law)

28. What two countries we study practice Sharia law? Nigeria and Russia Britain and China Nigeria and Iran

29. Common Law Countries

30. Sharia Law

31. Concept/Country Comparison Legal SystemJudicial ReviewIndependent ChinaCode lawNo Great BritainCommon lawNoYes IranShariaNo NigeriaCommon law Sharia Yes RussiaCode lawYesNo MexicoCode lawYes

32. GUOJIATUO, China — He Qingzhi's teenage daughter, Yuan, and her two friends lived on the same street near the Yangtze River, attended the same middle school and were crushed to death in the same traffic accident late last year. After that, the symmetry ended: under Chinese law, Yuan's life was worth less than the others'.China Mr. He, 38, who has lived in this town in central China for 15 years, was told that his neighbors were entitled to roughly three times more compensation from the accident because they were registered urban residents while he was only a migrant worker. Outraged, Mr. He and his lawyer are considering a lawsuit, saying that the decision was discriminatory and that the family was entitled to full compensation under the Chinese Constitution. The problem with that argument is the Chinese Constitution. More Chinese citizens like Mr. He are claiming legal rights and often citing the Constitution, but it is actually a flimsy tool for protecting individual rights. The problem is not that the document lacks lofty ideals or is considered unimportant. But for citizens in China, the Constitution is largely inaccessible. Even as it describes a broad range of rights, the Chinese legal system essentially does not allow people like Mr. He to use the Constitution as a mechanism to challenge laws or policies that they believe infringe on those rights. What’s NOT rule of law

33. Even so, some legal reformers in China believe that advancing the notion of constitutional law is critical in establishing the rule of law. So, increasingly, reformers are pushing ideas like creating a new and assertive constitutional court. Liberal reformers believe that expanding the reach of the Constitution could ultimately provide a greater check on the Communist Party. The Constitution has been rewritten or amended several times over the past half century, most recently in 2004, to include protections for private property rights. Such constitutional amendments are considered guidelines when the government drafts laws or regulations. But the Constitution does not stand above the Communist Party and ultimately, expanding the power of the Constitution or increasing the power of the courts could mean introducing changes in the political system, a move the Communist Party has resisted.

34. What Interest Group did we look at that would identify if a county adheres to the rule of law? Freedom House Gini Index TED OECD Gapminder

35. Bases of Legitimacy Beijing Accuses Taiwan Leader of 'Grave Provocation' March 1, 2006 President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad of Iran said his country was seeking better ways to make atomic fuel. NYT 4/17/2006 KURSK DISASTER Nuclear sub became an underwater tomb for 118 sailors 2000 December - Soviet anthem reintroduced to replace that brought in by Yeltsin. New words are written for it by poet Sergey Mikhalkov who penned the Soviet version as well Nationalism

36. Bases of Legitimacy: Economic performance / basic services/ stability and order States that can’t are “failed”

37. Gini Index: measure of income inequality. It is a number between 0 and 1 where 0 corresponds to perfect equality (i.e. everyone has the same income) and 1 corresponds to perfect inequality (i.e. one person has all the income, while everyone else has zero income GINI INDEX

38. GINI INDEX: a measure of inequality

39. NOTE: Correlation with per-capita GDP Poor countries (those with low per-capita GDP) have Gini coefficients that fall over the whole range from low (0.25) to high (0.71), while rich countries have generally low Gini coefficient (under 0.40).per-capita GDP

40. US income gini coefficients over time Gini coefficients for the United States at various times, according to the US Census Bureau:United StatesUS Census Bureau 19701970: 0.394 19801980: 0.403 19901990: 0.428 20002000: 0.462 20052005: 0.469[1][1]

41. Legitimacy and Corruption

42. Political Change Government change Reform – change happens in the system of gov without overthrowing the basic institutions Revolution – removal of an existing institution Coup d’etats – leader is removed, military take over of power

43. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was the last revolution in the 6 countries we study. True False

44. Political Change Attitudes or beliefs about change Radicalism – demands rapid, immediate change Liberalism – gradual change Conservative – less supportive of changes Reactionary – will fight to prohibit change Radicalism LiberalismConservativeReactionary

45. Governing the Economy State survival: success of states in maintaining their authority is greatly affected by their ability to assure that an adequate volume of goods and services is produced to satisfy the needs of their populations. Economic development: An important goal of all countries is to achieve durable economic development. Political economy: a term used to describe how governments affect economic performance and how the economy in turn affects a country’s political processes.

46. Governing the Economy capitalism: an economic system in which the means of production are mostly privately owned, and capital is invested in the production, distribution and other trade of goods and services, for profit in a competitive free market; also known as market economy or free enterprise. socialism: the broad array of doctrines or political movements that favor a socioeconomic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to social control. As an economic system, socialism is associated with state or collective ownership of the means of production. communism: a system of social organization based on the common ownership of land and coordination of production. According to Marxism, communism is a culminating stage of history, following capitalism and socialism. command economy: a form of socialism in which government decisions rather than market mechanisms are the major influences in determining the nation’s economic direction; also called central planning. mixed economy: an economy that has a mix of economic systems. It is usually defined as an economy that contains both privately-owned and state-owned enterprises or that combines elements of capitalism and socialism, or a mix of market economy and command economy.

47. How Much Democracy? The Democratic Idea: the claim by citizens that they should, in some way, exercise substantial control over the decisions made by their states and government Appeal of democracy: may represent a stand-off or equilibrium among political contenders widespread desire for dignity and equality

48. Classification by the Relationship Between Legislative and Executive Branches Chapter 1, Section 2 1111

49. How Much Democracy? Authoritarianism: a system of rule in which power depends not on popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is also characterized by near absolute power in the executive branch and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls. Authoritarian Regimes and the Democratic Idea: even in states based on unchecked or arbitrary power, democracy has an appeal––authoritarian states claim their attachment to “democracy.” (ex:Iran)

50. How Much Democracy?

51. Democratic Republic System in which voters elect people to represent them and make laws/policy for them Direct Democracy Does not exist at the state/country level

52. Liberal Democracy Equal rule of law Civil liberties Neutral judiciary Open civil society (ex. Free press) Civilian military control Illiberal democracy – state has competitive elections, but missing some of the above

53. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Liberal Democracy: A government which has regular, free and fair competitive elections and guarantees civil liberties, rule of law, neutrality of the judiciary, an open civil society and civilian control of the military. Liberal Democracies United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland (UK) European Union (EU): proof of a liberal democracy is required for membership in the “Euro club”

54. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Ideal Characteristics of a Liberal Democracy: political accountability: must be formal procedures by which those who hold political power are chosen by and held accountable to the people of the country. Key mechanism––> regular, free, and fair elections in which the voters may elect or defeat candidates for office. political competition: political parties must be free to organize, present candidates for office, express their ideas, and compete in fair elections. The winning party must be allowed to take office, and the losing party must relinquish power through legal and peaceful means. pluralism: a guiding principle which permits the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles. Unlike totalitarianism, pluralism acknowledges the diversity of interests and considers it imperative that members of society accommodate their differences by engaging in good-faith negotiation

55. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Ideal Characteristics of a Liberal Democracy (cont’d): political freedom: all citizens must possess political rights and civil liberties right to participate in the political process freedom of assembly, organization and political expression right to criticize the government protection against arbitrary state intrusion into their private lives political equality: all citizens must be legally entitled to participate in politics and their votes must have equal weight in the political process. Members of political, ethnic, or other minority groups must have equal rights as citizens.

56. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Realities of a Liberal Democracy: Unreachable standards: No government has ever fully lived up to the ideals. Limited ideals: The characteristics of democracy are limited, not absolute. Interpretation: Interpretations of the ideals are debatable and often the root of political disagreement. Economic inequality: Wealth often determines a person or group’s ability to affect political decisions.

57. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Key areas of policy difference Distribution of taxes: who pays how much in taxes is often a source of intense political debate. Government economic priorities: where the government should focus its economic investment is a critical factor (ex., restraining inflation or reducing unemployment). Government spending for social programs: not all agree on to what extent the government should provide for health care, unemployment compensation, old-age pensions and assistance to the needy. Foreign policy: what is the role of the country in foreign affairs and international relations.

58. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Main political systems Presidential system: the chief executive and the national legislature are chosen in separate elections, and there is a clear separation of powers between the executive branch and the legislature. Parliamentary system: executive and legislative powers are fused––the chief executive and the cabinet are themselves legislators who remain members of the legislature even when serving in the executive branch. Often the legislature serves as a forum for dramatic policy debate. Semi-presidential system: Combines elements of presidential and parliamentary systems.

59. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Main electoral systems: SMP Single-member Plurality (SMP): an electoral system in which candidates run for a single seat from a specific geographic district Advantages/Disadvantages of SMP? relatively simple and easy to administer; may be easier for voters to understand upholds principle of “one person, one vote” personal accountability for constituency government is likely to be dominated by two national parties (Duverger’s Law) system favors national parties with broad-based support and regional parties with localized support minor national parties are less likely to gain representation in the legislature

60. Political Systems: Liberal Democracy Main electoral systems: Party List PR Proportional Representation (PR): an electoral system delivering a close match between the percentage of votes that groups or parties of candidates obtain in elections and the percentage of seats they receive, usually in legislative assemblies. Advantages/Disadvantages of PR? can increase participation of smaller, nationally-based parties (multi-party system) can lead to centrist-leaning coalition governments it is possible for single-issue candidates/parties (supported by special interest groups) to be elected

61. Political Systems: Illiberal Democracy Illiberal Democracy: A government which has regular, free and fair competitive elections, but does not guarantee civil liberties, rule of law, neutrality of the judiciary, an open civil society or civilian control of the military. Illiberal Democracies Russia Mexico Nigeria NOTE: Some political scientists categorize the above countries as “developing democracies” because they are neither true liberal democracies nor are they true illiberal democracies. Russia, Mexico & Nigeria tend to lean in one direction or the other, depending on the political winds and the current regime.

62. Political Systems: Illiberal Democracy Characteristics of an Illiberal Democracy political parties may not be free to compete votes may not be counted fairly elected officials/parties may not be allowed to take office political officials may not be held accountable through elections and independent judicial inquiries press may not be open and free corruption may be prevalent relatively short period of democratic practice/experience M.K. Abiola Elected president of Nigeria in 1993, but imprisoned after election.

63. Political Systems: Non-Democracies Characteristics of an Non-Democracy Executive overwhelmingly stronger than other branches of government authoritarian-style government, often led by an individual or an all- powerful party other branches may exist on paper, but have no power to balance or challenge the authority of the executive elections may be held, but they are neither free nor fair no independent judiciary political competition is severely limited opposition parties may not be tolerated poorly developed or respected

64. Political Systems: Non-Democracies Characteristics of a Non-Democracy media not free individual rights not guaranteed government may employ fear and repression to maintain authority may suffer from widespread corruption citizens have little freedom to participate in and dissent from official policies citizens of different genders, racial groups, religions, and so on may not enjoy equal rights Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) may not be free to operate Non-Democracies People’s Republic of China Iran

65. Patron-Client Politics (Clientelism) Patron-client politics an informal aspect of policymaking in which a powerful patron offers resources in return for support from lower status and less powerful clients. corruption, preferential treatment and inequality are characteristic can exist in all states, but patron-client politics are more pervasive in developing democracies and non- democracies Clientelism referred to as “prebendalism” in Nigeria

66. Democratization No dem  illiberal dem  substantive dem Democratic consolidation [process] Command Economy Market economy Marketization Privatization Economic liberalization Mixed economy

67. ECONOMY

68. Political Efficacy refers to one’s perception of their own political effectiveness. It is a concept used to help explain political participation (or lack thereof) the more one believes in their own political efficacy, the more likely one is to vote, lobby, donate money, etc. the less one believes in their own political efficacy, the less likely one is to participate in any way.

69. Globalization the intensification of worldwide interconnectedness associated with the increased speed and magnitude of cross-border flows of trade, investment and finance, and processes of migration, cultural diffusion, and communication. process of globalization has been going on for centuries, but major geopolitical factors (ex. collapse of Soviet Union and satellite states) and technological advances (ex. Wireless communication, high speed travel) has hastened the process in the last 50 years.

70. Globalization Globalization’s influence on governments International organizations can establish rules by which participating members may agree to abide. In these instances, the government has given up some of its sovereignty over key issues. World Trade Organization (WTO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Health Organization (WHO), a part of the United Nations (UN) European Union (EU) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) may influence public opinion regarding certain issues and, therefore, influence government policy (ex., Amnesty International, Greenpeace) Governments are more sensitive and vulnerable to decisions made by other states States impacted by foreign economic investment and the movement of capital in and out of a country Travel and tourism can impact government policy (ex., 2008 Beijing Olympics)

71. Globalization Major issues in globalization democratization economic interdependence environment social justice economic equality international terrorism weapons drugs global warming

72. Globalization