1. An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology1
An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

2. Chapter 1 Learning Outcomes
Section 1: A&P in Perspective
1.1
Define anatomy and physiology.
1.2
Explain the relationship between structure and function.
1.3
Describe the levels of organization in the human body.
1.4
Identify the 11 organ systems of the human body, and describe the major functions of each.
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3. Chapter 1 Learning Outcomes
Section 2: Homeostasis
1.5
Explain the concept of homeostasis and discuss the roles of negative feedback and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis.
Section 3: Anatomical Terms
1.6
Use correct anatomical terms to describe superficial and regional anatomy.
1.7
Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to describe relative positions and relationships among body parts.
1.8
Identify the major body cavities and the subdivisions of each.
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4. Tips on How to Succeed in A&P (Section 1)
Approach the information in different ways
Set up a study schedule
Devote a block of time each day to this course
Practice memorization
Avoid shortcuts
Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions
Read assignments before coming to class
Do not procrastinate
Seek assistance right away – don't wait
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5. Anatomy Is the Study of Form (1.1)
Anatomy – literally "a cutting open"
Study of structures of the body
And the physical relationships among body parts
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6. Anatomy is the study of form
Gross (macroscopic) anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
Pulmonary
trunk
Superior
vena cava
Ascending
aorta
Left
atrium
Endocardium
(inner lining of heart)
Right
atrium
Myocardium
(heart muscle)
Epicardium
(outer surface
of heart)
Left
ventricle
Module 1.1 Anatomy is the study of form . . .
Right
ventricle
Inferior
vena cava
Descending
aorta
Figure 1 – 2
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7. Gross and Microscopic Anatomy (1.1)
Gross anatomy (or macroscopic anatomy)
Studying large structures, i.e., visible with the unaided eye
Microscopic anatomy
Studying structures that cannot be seen without magnification
Limited by equipment
Dissecting microscope – can see tissues
Light microscope – can see basic cell structure
Electron microscope – can see individual molecules
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8. Gross (macroscopic) anatomy
Pulmonary
trunk
Superior
vena cava
Ascending
aorta
Left
atrium
Right
atrium
Left
ventricle
Module 1.1 Anatomy is the study of form . . .
Right
ventricle
Inferior
vena cava
Descending
aorta
Figure 1
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9. (inner lining of heart)
Microscopic anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
Endocardium
(inner lining of heart)
Myocardium
(heart muscle)
Epicardium
(outer surface
of heart)
Module 1.1 Anatomy is the study of form . . .
Figure 2
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10. Specific Structures – Specific Functions (1.1)
Link between structure and function always present
Link not always understood
200 years between description of heart anatomy and demonstration of its function as a pump
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11. Physiology Is the Study of Function (1.1)
Considers functions of human body
Complex and more difficult to examine than anatomical structures
Focuses on functional properties
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12. Examples of Physiology Topics (1.1)
Electrical events within the heart coordinating the heartbeat
Measured by an electrocardiogram (ECG)
Pressure changes within the heart and major arteries
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13. Physiology is the study of function
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
120
Valve to
aorta closes
Valve to
aorta opens
Pressure in major arteries 90
Pressure (mm Hg) 60
Pressure in
left ventricle
Module 1.1 Anatomy is the study of form . . .
Pressure in
left atrium 30
Valve between atrium
and ventricle closes
Valve between atrium
and ventricle opens
200
400
600
800
Time (msec)
Pressure changes in the heart
Figure 3 – 4
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14. Module 1.1 Review Define anatomy and physiology.
What are the differences between gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy?
Explain the link between anatomy and physiology.
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15. Form and Function Are Interrelated (1.2)
Anatomy and physiology are closely interrelated in theory and in practice
One cannot be fully understood without the other
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16. Example of Form and Function Relationship (1.2)
Elbow joint
Functions like a hinge
Allows movement in one plane
Forearm moves toward or away from shoulder, but does not twist
Anatomical structures impose functional limits
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17. Form and function are interrelated
The elbow is a
hinge joint.
Cylindrical
surface on
humerus
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Interlocking arrangement
permits hinge-like movements
Module 1.2 Form and function are interrelated
Depression in the ulna
holds the humerus in
position.
Figure 1
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18. Module 1.2 Review
Describe how structure and function are interrelated.
Compare the functioning of the elbow joint with a door on a hinge.
Describe the structural features that help prevent twisting at the elbow joint.
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19. Multiple Levels of Organization in the Human Body (1.3)
The human body is complex, representing multiple levels of organization
Each level more complex than underlying one
All can be broken down to similar chemical and cellular components
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20. Levels of Organization – Chemical (1.3)
Chemical (or molecular) level (Chapter 2)
Atoms combine to form molecules
Functional property of molecule determined by its:
Three-dimensional shape
Atomic components
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21. Levels of Organization – Cellular (1.3)
Cellular level (Chapter 3)
Cells are the smallest living units in the body
Functions depend on organelles (composed of molecules)
Each organelle has a specific function
For example, a mitochondrion provides energy for heart muscle cell contraction
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22. Levels of Organization – Tissue to Organ (1.3)
Tissue level (Chapter 4)
A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform specific functions
For example, heart muscle cells form cardiac muscle tissue
Organ level
An organ is composed of two or more tissues working together to perform specific functions
Layers of cardiac muscle tissue along with connective tissue form the heart
A three-dimensional organ
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23. Levels of Organization – Organ System to Organism (1.3)
Organ system level (Chapters 4–19)
Organ systems consist of interacting organs
The heart works with blood vessels and blood to form the cardiovascular system
Organism level
Highest level of organization
Collection of organ systems working together to maintain life and health
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24. Levels of organization
Organism level
Organ system level
Organ level
Tissue level
Module 1.3 The human body has multiple interdependent levels of organization
Cellular level
Cellular (or molecular) level
Atoms in
combination
Complex protein
molecules
Protein
filaments
Figure 1.3
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25. Module 1.3 Review Define organ.
Name the lowest level of biological organization that includes the smallest living units in the body.
List the levels of organization between cells and organisms.
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26. Organs and Organ Systems (1.4)
Functional unit composed of more than one tissue type
Organ system
Organs interacting to perform specific functions
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27. Eleven Major Organ Systems (1.4)
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
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28. Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Organism
level
Organ
level
The heart is an organ
containing many tissue
types.
Cardiovascular
System
Endocrine
Lymphatic
Nervous
Respiratory
Muscular
Digestive
Organ system
level
Skeletal
Urinary
Integumentary
Reproductive
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
The cardiovascular system
includes the heart and other
organs.
Figure 1
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29. Integumentary System (1.4)
Protects the body from environmental hazards
Controls body temperature
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30. Integumentary Integumentary system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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31. Skeletal System (1.4) Supports Protects soft tissues Stores minerals
Forms blood cells
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32. Skeletal Skeletal system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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33. Muscular System (1.4) Moves and supports body Produces heat
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34. Muscular Muscular system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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35. Nervous System (1.4) Directs immediate responses to stimuli
Coordinates activities of other organ systems
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36. Nervous Nervous system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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37. Endocrine System (1.4)
Directs long-term changes in activities of other organ systems
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38. Endocrine Endocrine system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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39. Cardiovascular System (1.4)
Transports cells and dissolved materials internally
Including nutrients, wastes, and gases
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40. Cardiovascular system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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41. Lymphatic System (1.4) Defends against infection and disease
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42. Lymphatic Lymphatic system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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43. Respiratory System (1.4)
Delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur between air and blood
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44. Respiratory Respiratory system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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45. Digestive System (1.4) Processes food
Absorbs organic nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water
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46. Digestive Digestive system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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47. Urinary System (1.4)
Eliminates excess water, salts, and waste products
Controls pH
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48. Urinary Urinary system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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49. Reproductive System (1.4)
Produces sex cells and hormones
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50. Reproductive Reproductive system
Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 1
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51. Module 1.4 Organs and organ systems perform vital functions
Figure 2
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52. Module 1.4 Review List the 11 major organ systems of the body.
Explain the relationship between the skeletal system and the digestive system.
Using the table as a reference, describe how a compound fracture (bone break that protrudes through the skin) could affect at least six of your organ systems.
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53. Homeostasis (Section 2)
Homeostasis – presence of a stable environment inside the body
Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to illness or death
Homeostatic regulation – how body adjusts physiological systems to preserve homeostasis
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54. An Example of Homeostasis (Section 2)
Control of temperature in a living space
This process involves:
A receptor or sensor (thermometer)
Detects environmental change or stimulus
A control center or integration center (thermostat)
Receives and processes information supplied by the receptor and sends out commands
An effector (air conditioner)
Responds to commands by opposing stimulus
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55. Homeostatic regulation
HOMEOSTASIS
Normal
condition
restored
Normal
condition
disturbed
Normal room
temperature
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises
RESPONSE:
Room temperature
drops 3 1
EFFECTOR
RECEPTOR
Air conditioner
turns on
Thermometer 2
Module 1 Section 2 Homeostasis
CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)
Sends
commands to
Information
affects
Set point
20°
30°
40°
(°C)
Figure 1 Section 2 1 1
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56. Homeostasis Means Maintaining a Normal Range (Section 2)
Control of room temperature, just like control of body temperature, not precise
Temperature maintained in normal range around a set point
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57. Homeostasis maintains a normal range
Air
conditioner
turns on
Air
conditioner
turns off
Set point
Room temperature (°C) 22
Module 1 Section 2 Homeostasis
Normal range
Time
Figure 1 Section 2 2 2
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58. Negative Feedback Provides Stability (1.5)
Stimulation of a receptor triggers response that changes environment at same receptor
Negative feedback
Triggered response corrects situation
Effector opposes or negates the original stimulus
Room temperature control
When the temperature is too hot, an air conditioner is triggered to make the room cooler
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59. Negative Feedback (1.5) Tends to minimize change
Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation
Provides long-term control over body's internal conditions and systems
Dynamic process
Change in set point
Small oscillations around set point
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60. Negative feedback provides stability
Start
Homeostasis
restored
Homeostasis
disturbed
HOMEOSTASIS 3
EFFECTORS
Homeostasis and body
temperature 1
Smooth muscle in
walls of blood
vessels and sweat
glands
RECEPTORS
Temperature
receptors in skin
and brain 2
CONTROL
CENTER
Temperature
control center
Module 1.5 Negative feedback provides stability . . .
Figure 1
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61. Positive Feedback Accelerates a Process to Completion (1.5)
When a response exaggerates or enhances the original change (rather than opposing it)
Tends to produce extreme responses
Positive feedback loop
An escalating cycle
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62. Positive Feedback Loop (1.5)
Found in the body when potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly
Does NOT help maintain homeostasis
Example, blood clotting
Immediate danger to address – preventing blood loss
Stressful process must be completed quickly
After process is complete, stimulus for positive feedback loop stops
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63. Positive feedback loop
A break in
a blood
vessel wall
causes
bleeding
Clotting
accelerates
Positive
feedback
loop
Module 1.5 Negative feedback provides stability . . .
Blood clot
Chemicals
Chemicals
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood
clot, which patches the
vessel wall and stops
the bleeding.
Damage to cells in the
blood vessel wall
releases chemicals that
begin the process of
blood clotting.
The chemicals start
chain reactions in
which cells, cell
fragments, and soluble
proteins in the blood
begin to form a clot.
As clotting continues,
each step releases
chemicals that further
accelerate the process.
Figure 2
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64. Module 1.5 Review Identify the components of homeostatic regulation.
Explain the function of negative feedback systems.
Why is positive feedback helpful in blood clotting but unsuitable for regulating body temperature?
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65. Anatomical Terms (Section 3)
Anatomy uses special language
Many terms based on Latin or Greek used by ancient anatomists
Vocabulary continues to expand
Some eponyms (things named after the discoverer or victim of a disease) persist; many replaced by more precise terms
Knowing word roots and derivatives will help to understand the terms
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66. Module 1 Section 3 Anatomical Terms
Figure 1 Section 3
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67. Anatomical Position (1.6)
Anatomical position is the body with:
The hands at the sides
Palms facing forward
Feet together and facing forward
Eyes facing forward
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68. Anatomical Position Terms (1.6)
Supine – lying face up in anatomical position
Prone – lying face down in anatomical position
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69. Anterior body regions
Nasal or nose
Frontal or
forehead
Ocular or eye
Cranial
or skull
Otic or ear
Cephalic
or head
Buccal or cheek
Facial
or face
Cervical or neck
Oral or mouth
Mental or
chin
Thoracic or
thorax, chest
Axillary or
armpit
Mammary
or breast
Brachial
or arm
Abdominal
Antecubital
or front of
elbow
Trunk
Umbilical
or navel
Antebrachial
or forearm
Pelvic
Carpal
or wrist
Palmar
or palm
Manual
or hand
Pollex
or thumb
Module 1.6 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body
Digits or
phalanges
or fingers
Inguinal
or groin
Pubic
Patellar
or kneecap
Femoral or
thigh
Crural
or leg
Tarsal
or ankle
Digits or
phalanges
or toes
Pedal or foot
Hallux
or great toe
Figure 1
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Anterior view

70. Posterior body regions
Cephalic
or head
Acromial
or shoulder
Cervical
or neck
Dorsal
or back
Olecranal
or back
of elbow
Upper
limb
Lumbar
or loin
Gluteal
or buttock
Module 1.6 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body
Popliteal or
back of knee
Lower
limb
Sural
or calf
Calcaneal or
heel of foot
Plantar or
sole of foot
Posterior view
Figure 3 1
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71. Abdominopelvic Quadrants (1.6)
There are four abdominopelvic quadrants
Formed by a pair of imaginary perpendicular lines intersecting at the umbilicus (navel)
Used by clinicians to describe locations of:
Aches
Pains
Injuries
Location can help physicians determine possible cause of pain
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72. Abdominopelvic quadrants
Right
Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Left
Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Module 1.6 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
Figure 2
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73. Abdominopelvic Regions (1.6)
There are nine abdominopelvic regions
Used by anatomists to describe location and orientation of internal organs
More precise than abdominopelvic quadrants
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74. Abdominopelvic regions
Right
hypochondriac
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Epigastric
region
Module 1.6 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body
Right lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left lumbar
region
Right inguinal
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left inguinal
region
Figure 3
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75. Internal organs in abdominopelvic quadrants and regions
Stomach
Liver
Spleen
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Module 1.6 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary bladder
Figure 4
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76. Module 1.6 Review Describe a person in the anatomical position.
Contrast the descriptions used by clinicians and anatomists when referring to the positions of injuries or internal organs of the abdomen and pelvis.
A massage therapist often begins a massage by asking patrons to lie face down with their arms at their sides. What anatomical term describes that position?
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77. Directional Terms (1.7)
All anatomical directions utilize anatomical position as standard point of reference
Some terms used interchangeably
Anterior or ventral
Posterior or dorsal
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78. Cranial Superior Right Left Proximal Posterior or dorsal Anterior
Directional terms
Cranial
Superior
Right
Left
Proximal
Posterior
or dorsal
Anterior
or ventral
Lateral
Medial
Caudal
Proximal
Distal
Module 1.7 Directional and sectional terms describe specific points of reference
Distal
Inferior
Figure 1
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79. Module 1.7 Directional and sectional terms describe specific points of reference
Figure 1
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80. Sectional Planes (1.7) Sectional views
Sometimes the only way to show the relationship between parts of three-dimensional body
Medical imaging techniques utilize sectional views
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81. Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane Sectional planes
Module 1.7 Directional and sectional terms describe specific points of reference
Figure 2
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82. Module 1.7 Directional and sectional terms describe specific points of reference
Figure 2
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83. Module 1.7 Review
What is the purpose of directional and sectional terms?
In the anatomical position, describe an anterior view and a posterior view.
What type of section would separate the two eyes?
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84. Body Cavities (1.8)
Interior of body subdivided into regions called body cavities
Two functions of these cavities
Protect delicate organs from shocks and impacts
Permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs
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85. Internal Organs (1.8)
Internal organs partially or completely enclosed in body cavities are called viscera
Viscera (visceral organs) are not floating, but are connected to the rest of the body
For example, the heart is surrounded by the pericardial cavity
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86. Pericardial cavity analogy
The relationship between the
heart and the pericardial cavity
resembles that of a fist pushing
into a balloon.
Base of heart
Module 1.8 Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
Pericardial lining prevents friction.
Pericardial cavity
Figure 1.8 1 1
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87. Ventral Body Cavity (1.8)
Single ventral body cavity, or coelom, forms during embryological development
Contains organs of respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
Later subdivided into:
Thoracic cavity – everything deep to the chest wall
Abdominopelvic cavity – everything deep to the abdominal and pelvic walls
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88. Ventral body cavity divisions
THORACIC CAVITY
Each lung is surrounded by
a pleural cavity.
pericardial
cavity
Heart in
Right
lung
in right
pleural
cavity
Left
lung
in left
pleural
cavity
BODY CAVITIES
Mediastinum
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Diaphragm
Peritoneum (red)
showing the boundaries
of the peritoneal cavity
THORACIC CAVITY
The abdominal cavity
contains many digestive
glands and organs
Module 1.8 Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
Retroperitoneal area
Diaphragm
The pelvic cavity contains
the urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, and the
last portion of the digestive tract;
many of these structures lie posterior
to, or inferior to, the peritoneal cavity.
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY
Figure 2 – 4
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89. BODY CAVITIES THORACIC CAVITY Diaphragm ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
Ventral body cavities
BODY CAVITIES
THORACIC CAVITY
Diaphragm
Module 1.8 Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY
Figure 1.8 2 2
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90. Thoracic Cavity (1.8) Contains lungs, heart, other structures
Bounded by chest wall and diaphragm
Subdivided into:
Two pleural cavities (one around each lung)
One pericardial cavity (around heart)
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91. Thoracic cavity structures
Each lung is surrounded by
a pleural cavity.
pericardial
cavity
Heart in
Right
lung
in right
pleural
cavity
Left
lung
in left
pleural
cavity
Module 1.8 Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
Mediastinum
Figure 1.8 3 3
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92. Abdominopelvic Cavity (1.8)
Bounded by:
Diaphragm
Muscles of abdominal wall
Trunk muscles
Inferior portions of vertebral column
Bones and muscles of the pelvis
Subdivided into:
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
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93. Peritoneal Cavity (1.8)
Portion of original ventral cavity remains as peritoneal cavity
Kidneys and pancreas are retroperitoneal
Between peritoneal lining and muscular wall of abdominopelvic cavity
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94. Abdominopelvic cavity structures
Diaphragm
Peritoneum (red)
showing the boundaries
of the peritoneal cavity
The abdominal cavity
contains many digestive
glands and organs
Retroperitoneal area
The pelvic cavity contains
the urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, and the
last portion of the digestive tract;
many of these structures lie posterior
to, or inferior to, the peritoneal cavity.
Module 1.8 Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
Figure 1.8 4 4
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95. Module 1.8 Review Describe two essential functions of body cavities.
Identify the subdivisions of the ventral body cavity.
If a surgeon makes an incision just inferior to the diaphragm, which body cavity will be opened?
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