1. First Two Years: Biosocial Development
Chapter Five
First Two Years:
Biosocial Development

2. Body Changes
Rapid changes
Consequences of neglect severe

3. Body Size Most notable time for physical changes
in each of the first 12 months they grow an inch
birth weight usually doubles by 4 months and triples by end of first year
head-sparing—biological protection of the brain when malnutrition temporarily affects body growth

4. Sleep Newborns sleep about 17 hours per day
needed for rapid growth
REM sleep—rapid eye movement sleep—declines
quiet sleep increases at about 3 months
too immature to sleep through the night
Infant’s sleep patterns influenced by brain waves and parents’ caregiving practices

6. Early Brain Development
Most critical biosocial aspect of growth
newborn’s skull disproportionately large
at birth, 25% of adult brain weight
by age 2, 75% of adult brain weight

7. Growth in the First Two Years

8. Connections in the Brain
Head measurement increases 35% in first year
brain development: changes in the brain’s communication system

9. Basic Brain Structures
Neurons—long thin nerve cells that make up nervous system
created before birth
70% in cortex (brain’s outer layer)
Axons—nerve fibers that extend from neurons that send impulses
Dendrites—nerve fibers extending from neurons that receive impulses

10. Action Potential http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ap.html

11. Action Potential

12. Areas of the Cortex

13. Basic Brain Structures, cont.
Neurons—long thin nerve cells that make up nervous system
created before birth
70% in cortex (brain’s outer layer)
Axons—nerve fibers that extend from neurons that send impulses
Dendrites—nerve fibers extending from neurons that receive impulses

14. Basic Brain Structures, cont.
Each neuron has a single axon (nerve fiber) that extends from it and meets the dendrites of other neurons at intersections called synapses
axons and dendrites don’t actually touch at synapses
electrical impulses trigger brain chemicals called neurotransmitters, which carry information from axon of sending neuron across synaptic gap to dendrites of receiving neuron
synapses are critical communication links with the brain

15. Connections in the Brain

16. Exuberance At birth more than 100 million neurons are present
Phenomenal growth is referred to as transient exuberance—fivefold increase in dendrites in first 2 years
As many as 15,000 connections may be made per neuron

18. Experience Enhances the Brain
Specifics of brain structure and growth depend partly on experience
exuberance is transient—transitional stage between newborn brain’s immaturity and the maturity of older child’s or adult’s brain
underused neurons are inactivated, or pruned

19. Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.
Reactions to Stress
experiencing stress may cause overproduction of stress hormone
developing brain can lose capacity to react normally to stress
normal neuron connections may have been pruned for rapid response to repeated stress

20. Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.
William Greenough identified 2 experience-related parts of brain growth
experience-expectant brain functions
require basic common experiences to develop normally
experience-dependent brain functions
depend on particular and variable experiences to develop

21. Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.
Human brains are designed for expected experiences
how the brain is structured and connected will depend on those experiences
the brain expects certain experiences at certain ages
these experiences critical if connections are to form; if connections not formed, plasticity may allow new connections and pathways as experiences continue

22. The Senses and Motor Skills
Sensorimotor Stage
cognition develops between senses and motor skills

23. Sensation and Perception
All senses function at birth
sensation—the response of sensory system when it detects stimulus
begins with outer organ—nose, eyes, etc.
perception—mental procession of sensory information when brain interprets sensation
begins in the brain and requires experience
cognition—thinking about what was perceived

24. Listening Begins prenatally and is acute at birth
Certain sounds trigger newborns’ reflexes
Newborns particularly attentive to human voice
Newborns’ sensitive hearing combines with brain to distinguish sounds

25. Looking Vision the least mature sense at birth
Visual experience combined with visual cortex maturation improves vision
with time scanning becomes more organized, efficient, and centered
Binocular vision—ability to focus two eyes in a coordinated manner to see single image

26. Tasting, Smelling, and Touching
taste—functions at birth; calmed by sugar, sensitive to sour
touch—comforted by human touch; feel pain
smell—can distinguish between odors and have preferences
Early sensation is organized for
social interaction
comfort

27. Motor Skills
Most visible and dramatic body change of infancy

28. Reflexes Reflexes for survival are categorized
maintain oxygen supply (breathing)
maintain body temperature (crying, kicking)
manage feeding (rooting and sucking)
swallowing aids feeding
spitting up if too much has been swallowed
crying when stomach empty

29. Gross Motor Skills Involve large muscles and body movements
crawling, creeping, walking

30. Fine Motor Skills
Small, finely tuned movements, especially of hands and fingers, including
successful grabbing
fingering, pointing, and holding
grasping a moving object
transferring objects from hand to hand
adjusting reach

31. Age Norms (in Months) for Gross Motor Skills*

32. Variations and Ethnic Differences
Age at which motor skills acquired varies greatly because of
ethnicity
inherited factors—genetic differences
patterns of infant care
individual rate of physical maturation

33. Public Health Measures
Newborn Care
Immunizations
Nutrition

34. Immunization
Immunization—process that stimulates body’s immune system to defend against attack by a particular contagious disease
smallpox
polio
measles

35. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Risk factors?
laying baby on stomach to sleep
secondhand smoke
low birthweight
formula feeding rather than breast feeding

36. Ethnicity and SIDS Asian babies less likely to succumb
Babies of African descent more likely
Infantcare routines in different cultures play a role

37. Nutrition
How Infants Are Fed

38. Breast Is Best Breast Milk
begins with colostrum, high-calorie nourishment before milk “lets down”
easily digestible
has antibodies and antibacterial properties
better for baby’s health
Bottle Feeding: babies more likely to have allergies
better option if mother is HIV-positive or using drugs
Feeding on Demand

39. Malnutrition Severe Malnutrition
brain does not have enough nutrition to develop normally
no body reserves to protect from disease
marasmus and kwashiorkor diseases are direct result of malnutrition

41. The First Two Years: Cognitive Development
Chapter Six
The First Two Years:
Cognitive Development

42. Sensorimotor Intelligence
Sensoritmotor intelligence—active intelligence causing babies to think while using senses and motor skills

43. Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular Reactions
The feedback loop involving the infants own body; infant senses motion and tries to make sense of it
Stage 1 = Reflexes
Stage 2 = First Acquired Adaptations
adaptations of reflexes, i.e., sucking—new information taken in by senses and responded to

44. Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular Reactions, cont.
Assimilation and Accommodation
assimilation—taking in new information by incorporating it into previous knowledge
accommodation— intake of new data to re-adjust, refine, expand prior schema or actions
babies eagerly adapt their reflexes and senses to whatever experiences they have

45. Stages 1 and 2: Primary Circular Reactions, cont.
Sucking as a Stage-Two Adaptation
begin adapting at about one month
reflexive assimilation

46. Stages 3 and 4: Secondary Circular Reactions
feedback loop involving people and objects
Stage 3 = Making Interesting Events Last
repetition
awareness
Stage 4 = New Adaptation and Anticipation
goal-directed behavior
object permanence

47. Stages 5 and 6: Tertiary Circular Reactions
Feedback loop that involves active experimentation and exploration
involves creativity, action, and ideas
Stage 5 = New Means Through Active Experimentation
little scientist

48. Stages 5 and 6: Tertiary Circular Reactions, cont.
Stage 6 = New Means Through Mental Combinations
mental combinations—sequence of mental actions tried out before actual performance
deferred imitation—perception of something someone else does (modeling), then performing action at a later time

49. Piaget and Modern Research
Habituation—process of getting used to an object or event through repeated exposure to it
fMRI—functional magnetic resonance imaging measuring technique for brain activity and neurological responses
First three years are prime time for cognitive development

50. Information Processing
Information-processing theory— perspective that compares human thinking processes to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, stored memories, and output

51. Affordances
Affordances—opportunities for perception and interaction offered by environment
How something is perceived and acted upon depends on
past experiences
current developmental level
sensory awareness of opportunities
immediate needs and motivation

52. Sudden Drops
Visual cliff measures depth perception, which is based not on maturity level but affordance
depends on prior experience
Object Constancy
things remain what they are, despite changes in perception or appearance
boundaries of three-dimensional objects

53. Movement and People
Dynamic perception—1 of the 2 principles explaining infant perception; namely, that from birth perception is primed to focus on movement and change
2nd principle explaining infant perception is that babies are fascinated by people
Infants most interested in emotional affordances of their caregivers

54. Memory
Certain amount of experience and maturation in order to process and remember experiences
In first year infants have great difficulty storing new memories
Older children often unable to describe events that occurred when they were younger

55. Memory, cont. Very early memories possible if
situation similar to real life
motivation high
special measures aid retrieval by acting as reminders

56. Reminders and Repetition
Reminder session—any perceptual experience that helps a person recall an idea or experience

57. A Little Older, A Little More Memory
After 6 months infants capable of retaining information for longer periods of time with less reminding
Deferred imitation apparent after end of first year
By middle of the 2nd year, children capable of remembering and reenacting complex sequences

58. A Little Older, A Little More Memory, cont.
Memory is not just single entity; distinct brain regions for particular aspects of memory; humans have a memory for
words
images
actions
smells
experiences
“memorized” facts

59. Language: What Develops in Two Years?
Most impressive intellectual achievement of young child and also of all humans

60. The Universal Sequence of Language Development
Children around the world have the same sequence of early language development but
timing and depth of linguistic ability vary

61. First Noises and Gestures
Baby talk—high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive ways adults talk to babies
Vocalization
crying
cooing
Babbling
deaf babies do it later and less frequently, but are more advanced in use of gestures

62. First Words
First word and sentences at age of 1 year

63. The Language Explosion and Early Grammar
Naming explosion—sudden increase in infant vocabulary, especially nouns, beginning at 18 months
Holophrase—single word that expresses a complete, meaningful thought
Grammar—all the methods that languages use to communicate meaning

64. Theories of Language Learning
Even the very young use language well
Three schools of thought
infants are taught language
infants teach themselves
social impulses foster infant language

65. Theory 1: Infants are Taught
Skinner’s reinforcement theory: quantity and quality of talking to child affects rate of language development (learned)
parents are good instructors
baby talk characterized by
high pitch
simpler vocabulary
shorter sentence length
more questions and commands
repetition

66. Theory 2: Infants Teach Themselves
Chomsky and LAD (Language Acquisition Device)—hypothesized neurological (inborn) structure that prewires all children for language, including basic aspects of intonation, grammar, and vocabulary
infants innately ready to use their minds to understand and speak whatever language offered to them
they are experience expectant

67. Theory Three: Social Impulses Foster Language
Social-pragmatic—social reason for language: to communicate
Infants seek to respond, which shows their being social in nature— and thus mutually dependent—by
vocalizing
babbling
gesturing
listening
pointing

68. A Hybrid Theory
Emergentist coalition—combination of valid aspects of several theories
cortex contains many language centers
nature provides several paths to learning language

69. The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development
Chapter Seven
The First Two Years:
Psychosocial Development

70. Theories About Early Psychosocial Development
Importance of parents and their contribution to emotional growth

71. Psychoanalytic Theory
Connects biosocial and psychosocial development

72. Freud: Oral and Anal Stages
Oral Stage—1st stage, where infant obtains pleasure through sucking and biting
Anal Stage—2nd stage, where anus becomes main source of gratification, i.e., bowel movements and the control of them

73. Erikson: Trust and Autonomy
1st Stage—Trust vs. Mistrust
basic needs need to be met with consistency, continuity, and sameness
2nd Stage—Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
basic desire to gain self-rule over their own actions and bodies and to feel ashamed if it doesn’t happen

74. Behaviorism
Infant’s emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish child’s spontaneous behavior
social learning adds to personality formation
social referencing strengthens learning by observation

75. Cognitive Theory
Individual’s thoughts and values determine perspective on the world
Working model—set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiences

76. Epigenetic Theory
Each child is born with a genetic predisposition to develop certain traits that affect emotional development
Temperament—“constitutionally based individual differences in emotion, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation.”
inhibited
uninhibited
epigenetic—though personality traits not learned, environment affects their expression

77. Research on Temperament: Nine Characteristics
activity level
rhythmicity
approach-withdrawal
adaptability
intensity of reaction
threshold of responsiveness
quality of mood
distractibility
attention span

78. Temperament and Caregiving
Inhibited vs. Uninhibited
responsive care and encouragement can help inhibited children become less so
Match between parent and child
goodness of fit

80. Sociocultural Theory
Emphasizes the many ways social context can have impact on infant-caregiver relationship
If social context changes, child can change

81. Emotional Development in Infancy
In the first 2 years of emotional development, infants progress from simple reactions to complex patterns of social awareness

82. The First Year Newborns’ first discernable emotions
distress
contentment
Later emotions (after first weeks)
anger
fear, expressed clearly by stranger wariness and separation anxiety

83. The Second Year Fear and anger typically decrease
Laughing, crying: more discriminating
New emotions appear
pride
shame
embarrassment
guilt

85. Self-Awareness Foundation for emotional growth
realization of individual distinctions
At about 5 months begin developing a sense of self apart from mother
15-18 months the “Me-self”
rouge experiment

86. Pride and Shame
Self-awareness becomes linked with self-concept early on
Negative comments more likely to lead to less pride or shame
Own pride can be more compelling than parental approval

87. The Development of Social Bonds
Social connections help us understand human emotions

88. Synchrony Synchrony—coordinated interaction; attunement
Helps infants learn to express own feelings
Imitation is pivotal
Becomes more elaborate and more frequent with time
Learning through play
playful interactions by both partners
important for both to be responsive

89. Attachment Enduring emotional connection Proximity-seeking behaviors
Contact-maintaining behaviors

90. Secure and Insecure Attachment
Bowlby and Ainsworth
Secure—relationship of trust and confidence that provides comfort, assurance, and secure base

91. Secure and Insecure Attachment, cont.
Insecure—relationship that is unpredictable or unstable
avoidant: one person tries to avoid any connection with another
resistant/ambivalent: anxiety and uncertainly keep one person clinging to another

93. Measuring Attachment
Strange Situation—lab procedure to measure attachment; observed are
exploration of the toys (caregiver present)
reaction to caregiver’s departure
reaction to caregiver’s return
disorganized behavior—neither secure nor insecure attachment—marked by inconsistent behavior of caregiver and infant toward each other

94. Insecure Attachment as a Warning Sign
Stressed mother (although not always an indicator)
Mother too withdrawn
Inconsistent behavior of mother (conflicting messages sent by her)
Insecure attachments repairable

95. Social Referencing
Looking to others for cues

96. Referencing Mom Look to mother for comfort
Mother’s tone and expression can become guide to how to react to unfamiliar or ambiguous event

97. Referencing Dad Fathers play more than mothers
Infants look to fathers for fun and physical play
Physically active play with fathers may contribute to development of social skills and emotional expression
Physically active play with fathers helps children master motor skills and develop muscle control

98. Cultural Differences
Fathers, single mothers, grandparents, and cultures with other family structures still provide needed referencing
Father’s involvement
can benefit later development of child
raise mother’s self-confidence
and two parents working together are better able to meet infant’s needs than either alone

99. Infant Day Care
Almost all infants cared for by people other than parents part of the time
Specifics vary from culture to culture
The older the child and the more money the family has, the more likely possibility of day care

100. Infant Day-Care Family day care Center care
Day care generally beneficial
High-quality programs include
adequate attention to each infant
encouragement of sensorimotor exploration and language development
attention to health and safety
well-trained professional caregivers

102. Poor day care has detrimental effects
Infant Day Care, cont.
Cognitive and biosocial development are more advanced by day care than at home
Poor day care has detrimental effects

103. Conclusions in Theory and Practice
No single theory stands out as best interpretation of developments during first 2 years
Do not know the extent to which positive influence can compensate for negative one

104. Conclusions in Theory and Practice, cont.
Parental attentiveness crucial to synchrony, attachment, and social referencing.
In dealing with children with problems, need a practical rather than theoretical approach that focuses on their specific issues