1. Chapter 6 General Anatomy and Physiology

2. “Remember, you can earn more money, but when time is spent, it is gone forever.” – Zig Ziglar

3. Objectives
Define anatomy and physiology and explain their importance to the cosmetology profession.
Describe cells, their structure, and their reproduction.
Define tissue and identify the types of tissues found in the body.
Name the 11 main body systems and explain their basic functions.
LEARNING MOTIVATION (WHY?)
As a practitioner in the professional world of cosmetology, the services you perform will, almost without exception, affect the bones, muscles, and nerves of the body. It is absolutely essential that you understand the basic anatomy and physiology of the human body in order to perform all services safely and effectively. Think about it. When cutting hair, you must understand the contours of the head and its bone structure. When applying makeup, you must perform contouring based on the bone and muscle structure of the face. When giving a scalp treatment, you must understand the circulatory system in order to achieve maximum stimulation of the scalp. When applying massage techniques to any part of the body, such as the head, face, neck, shoulders, hands, arms, feet, and lower legs, you must understand how the muscular system and the nerves of the body actually function.
So, while studying the anatomy and physiology of the body may not seem like the most interesting or romantic part of your training, it is clearly an integral part of your training and will contribute greatly to your success in the field of appearance enhancement. Your knowledge and understanding of this important subject will also gain your clients’ trust and confidence in your credibility and, as with all other subjects studied in this course, increase the revenues you generate in the salon.
Today’s lesson covers all the organ systems, the organs, body tissues, and cells. The cell is the basic structure from which all other body structures are made. Cells are composed of atoms or groups of atoms, which are made up of even smaller, submicroscopic particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons.

4. Anatomy Defined: The study of the structures of the human body
that can be seen with the naked eye and how the body
parts are organized; the science of the structure of
organisms or of their parts.

5. Physiology Defined: The study of the functions and activities
performed by the body’s structures.

6. Histology
Defined: The study of tiny structures found in living tissues. Also known as microscopic anatomy.

7. Cells
The basic units of all living things, from bacteria, plants, and animals to human beings. Cells carry out all life processes and reproduce. They vary in size, shape, and purpose.

8. Cell Composition
Cells of all living things are composed of protoplasm, a colorless jellylike substance in which proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts, and water are present.

9. Cell Structure Nucleus – center of cell
Cytoplasm – watery fluid containing food materials necessary for growth
Centrosome – controls transportation of substances in and out of cells
Cell membrane – permits movement of soluble substances in and out of cells
NUCLEUS : The dense, active protoplasm found in the center of cells; plays an important part in cell reproduction and metabolism.
CYTOPLASM: All the protoplasm of a cell except that in the nucleus; the watery fluid that contains food materials necessary for growth, reproduction, and self-repair of the cell.
CENTROSOME: Small, round body in the cytoplasm; controls the transportation of substances in and out of cells, and affects reproduction of cells.
CELL MEMBRANE: The cell wall; a delicate protoplasmic material that encloses a living plant or animal cell, and permits soluble substances to enter and leave the cell.

10. Cell Construction

11. Cell Mitosis Cell Reproduction and Division Adequate food supply
Adequate oxygen supply
Adequate water supply
Waste elimination
Proper temperature
Cell Metabolism
Anabolism
Catabolism

12. Cell Metabolism
Anabolism – building up larger molecules from smaller ones
Catabolism – breaking down of complex compounds within cells to smaller ones
Homeostasis – the simultaneous activity of anabolism and catabolism that maintains normal, internal stability in organs
CELL METABOLISM: The complex chemical process taking place in living organisms whereby the body cells are nourished and supplied with the energy needed to carry out their activities. There are two phases:
Anabolism: This is constructive metabolism; the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones; the body stores water, food, and oxygen for when they are needed for growth and repair.
Catabolism: The phase of metabolism that involves the breaking down of complex compounds within the cells into smaller ones, often resulting in the liberation of energy to perform functions such as muscular effort, secretions, or digestion.
The simultaneous activity of anabolism and catabolism creates homeostasis (the maintenance of normal, internal stability in organisms).

13. Tissues Connective tissue – binds together body tissues
Epithelial tissue – provides protective covering on body surfaces
Muscular tissue – contracts and moves various body parts
Nerve tissue – carries messages to/from the brain; controls and coordinates body functions
TISSUES: A collection of similar cells that perform a particular function. Body tissues are composed of 60 to 90 percent water. There are four types:
CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Serves to support, protect, and bind together other tissues of the body such as bone, cartilage, ligament, tendon, fascia (which separates muscles), and fat or adipose tissue.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE: Protective covering on body surfaces such as the skin, mucous membranes, linings of the heart, digestive and respiratory organs, and glands.
MUSCULAR TISSUE: Contracts and moves various parts of the body.
NERVE TISSUE: Carries messages to and from the brain, and controls and coordinates all body functions.

14. Organs Brain – controls the body Eyes – control the vision
Heart – circulates the blood
Kidneys – excrete waste products
Lungs – supply oxygen to blood
Liver – remove toxins of digestion
Skin – forms protective body covering
Stomach/Intestines – digests food

15. Organs (continued)
ORGANS: See Table 6–1. Groups of tissues designed to perform a specific function.

16. Systems Circulatory – controls circulation of blood
Digestive – changes food into nutrients and wastes
Endocrine – affects growth and development
Excretory – eliminates waste
Integumentary – regulates body temperature

17. Systems (continued)
Muscular – covers, shapes, supports skeletal tissue
Nervous – controls/coordinates all systems
Reproductive – produces offspring
Respiratory – enables breathing
Skeletal – provides physical body foundation
MUSCULAR: Covers, shapes, and supports the skeletal tissue; also contracts and moves various parts of the body; consists of muscles.
NERVOUS: Controls and coordinates all other systems and makes them work harmoniously and efficiently; consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
REPRODUCTIVE: Responsible for processes by which plants and animals produce offspring.
RESPIRATORY: Enables breathing, supplying the body with oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide as a waste product; consists of the lungs and air passages.
SKELETAL: Physical foundation of the body; consists of the bones and movable and immovable joints.

18. Systems (continued)
Groups of organs that cooperate for the welfare of the body. We will discuss each system separately.

19. Skeletal System
The skeletal system forms the physical foundation of the body. It is composed of 206 bones that vary in size and shape and are connected by movable and immovable joints.

20. Bone Composition 1/3 Organic matter – cells and blood
2/3 Mineral matter – mainly calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate

21. Osteology
Osteology is the study of the anatomy, structure, and function of the bones.
Os means “bones.”

22. Primary Functions of Skeletal System
Gives shape and support to body
Protects internal structures and organs
Acts as frame where muscles attach
Acts as levers to produce body movement
Helps produce white and red blood cells (a function of bone marrow)
Stores minerals

23. Joints
Joints are the connections between two or more bones of the skeleton.
Movable – such as elbows, knees, and hips
Immovable – such as pelvis or skull
People often complain of joint pain, but the pain is usually caused by inflammation of tissue surrounding the joint. We have 230 movable and semimovable joints in our bodies.

24. Bones of the Skull Cranium – bony case that protects brain
Facial skeleton – framework of face composed of 14 bones

25. Bones of the Cranium Occipital – forms back of skull above nape
Parietal – forms sides and top of cranium
Frontal – forms the forehead
Temporal – forms sides of head in ear area
Ethmoid – between eye sockets
Sphenoid – joins all cranium bones
Ethmoid and sphenoid bones are not affected when performing services or giving a massage.

26. Bones of the Face Nasal – form bridge of nose (2)
Lacrimal – front, inner wall of eye sockets (2)
Zygomatic – form prominence of cheeks (2)
Maxillae – upper jaw (2)
Mandible – lower jawbone; largest and strongest facial bone

27. Bones of the Neck Hyoid – supports tongue and muscles
Cervical vertebrae – located in neck region (7)

28. Bones of the Chest, Shoulder, and Back
Thorax – protects heart and lungs
Ribs – form wall of the thorax (12 pairs)
Scapula – large, flat, triangular bones of the shoulder (2)
Sternum – breastbone; supports ribs
Clavicle – joins sternum and scapula

29. Bones of the Arm and Hand
Humerus – largest arm bone, from shoulder to elbow
Ulna – inner and larger bone of forearm
Radius – smaller bones on thumb side of forearm
Carpus – bones of wrist (8 irregular bones)
Metacarpus – bones of palm (5)
Phalanges – bones of the fingers (14 in each hand)

30. Bones of the Arm and Hand (continued)

31. Bones of the Leg Femur – long bone above knee
Tibia – larger bone below knee (anklebone on big toe side of foot)
Fibula – smaller bone below knee (anklebone on little toe side of foot)
Patella – kneecap

32. Bones of the Foot
Ankle joint – composed of tibia, fibula, and talus (anklebone)
Tarsal – bones of the ankle (7)
Metatarsal – like metacarpal bones of the hand (5)
Toe phalanges – bones of the toes (14 in each foot)
The foot is made up of 26 bones that can be divided into three categories.

33. Bones of the Foot (continued)

34. Muscular System
Myology – the study of the structure, function, and diseases of the muscles (fibrous tissues with the ability to stretch and contract). The human body has over 600 muscles responsible for 40 percent of the body’s weight.

35. Muscular Tissue Striated muscles – skeletal muscles
Nonstriated muscles – smooth muscles
Cardiac muscle – the heart
TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
Striated: Striped; skeletal or voluntary tissue controlled by the will. They create heat and energy during muscle contraction, assist in maintaining body’s posture, and protect some internal organs: Examples: facial, arm, leg muscles. Skeletal muscles comprise about 23 percent of a woman’s body weight and about 40 percent of a man’s body weight.
Nonstriated: Involuntary, visceral, or smooth muscles. They function automatically, without conscious thought or will; found in the internal organs such as the digestive or respiratory system.
Cardiac: Found only in the heart. It powers the action that pumps blood throughout the body. The cardiac muscle is involuntary; it cannot be consciously controlled.

36. Muscle Parts
Origin – where muscle is attached to an immovable section of the skeleton
Insertion – the portion of the muscle at the movable attachment
Belly – the middle of the muscle
Pressure in massage is usually directed from the insertion to the origin.

37. Stimulation of Muscles
Massage
Electric current
Light rays
Heat rays
Moist heat
Nerve impulses
Chemicals
Massage: By hand or electric vibrator.
Electric current: High-frequency and faradic current.
Light rays: Infrared and ultraviolet rays.
Heat rays: Heating lamps and caps.
Moist heat: Steamers and steamed towels.
Nerve impulses: Through the nervous system.
Chemicals: Certain acids and salts.

38. Scalp Muscles Epicranius or occipitofrontalis – covers top of skull
Occipitalis – back part of scalp
Frontalis – front part of scalp; raises eyebrows
Epicranial aponeurosis – connects occipitalis and frontalis

39. Muscles of the Ear Auricularis superior – draws ear upward
Auricularis anterior – draws ear forward
Auricularis posterior – draws ear backward

40. Muscles of Mastication
Masseter
Temporalis
Medial pterygoid
Lateral pterygoid
These muscles coordinate in opening and closing the mouth; they’re referred to as the chewing muscles.

41. Neck Muscles
Platysma – extends from chest and shoulder muscle to side of chin; lowers jaw and lip
Sternocleidomastoideus – lowers and rotates the head
PLATYSMA: Broad muscle that extends from the chest and shoulder muscles to the side of the chin; depresses lower jaw and lip, as in sadness.
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOIDEUS: Extends from collar and chest bones to temporal bone in back of ear; depresses and rotates head, as in nodding.

42. Eyebrow Muscles Orbicularis oculi – allows eye to close.
Corrugator supercilii – draws eyebrow down and in; wrinkles forehead vertically
ORBICULARIS OCULI: Ring muscle of the eye socket; allows the eye to close.
CORRUGATOR SUPERCILII: Muscle beneath frontalis and orbicularis oculi; draws the eyebrow down and in and wrinkles the forehead vertically.

43. Muscles of the Nose
Procerus – covers bridge of nose; lowers eyebrows; causes wrinkles across bridge of nose
Other nasal muscles – contract and expand nostrils
Other nasal muscles are not of major concern to cosmetologists.

44. Muscles of the Mouth
Buccinator – compresses cheeks and expels air between lips
Depressor labii inferioris – draws lower lip to one side
Levator anguli oris – raises angle of mouth and draws it inward
Levator labii superioris – elevates upper lip and dilates nostrils

45. Muscles of the Mouth (continued)
Mentalis – elevates lower lip and raises and wrinkles skin of chin
Orbicularis oris – compresses, contracts, puckers, and wrinkles the lips
Risorius – draws corners of mouth out and back, as in grinning

46. Muscles of the Mouth (continued)
Triangularis – pulls down the corner of the mouth
Zygomaticus major – pulls the mouth upward and backward for smiling
Zygomaticus minor – pulls the upper lip backward, upward, and outward when smiling
The face has over 30 muscles that control expressions.

47. Muscles Attaching Arms to Body
Latissimus dorsi
Pectoralis major and minor
Serratus anterior
Trapezius
MUSCLES ATTACHING ARMS TO BODY
Latissimus dorsi: Broad, flat superficial muscle that covers the back of the neck and upper and middle regions of the back; controls the shoulder blade and the swinging movements of the arm.
Pectoralis major and minor: Cover front of chest; assist in swinging movements of the arm.
Serratus anterior: Muscle of the chest that assists in breathing and in raising the arm.
Trapezius: Muscle that covers the back of the neck and upper and middle regions of the back; rotates and controls swinging movements of the arm.

48. Shoulder and Arm Muscles
Deltoid – extends arm outward and to side
Biceps – lifts forearm, flexes elbow
Triceps – extends forearm
Pronator – faces palm downward
Supinator – faces palm upward
Flexor – flexes wrists
Extensor – straightens wrist, hand, fingers
SHOULDER AND ARM MUSCLES
Deltoid: Large, thick triangular-shaped muscle that covers the shoulder joint and allows the arm to extend outward and to the side of the body.
Biceps: Two-headed muscle producing the contour of the front and inner side of the upper arm; lifts forearm, flexes elbow, and turns palm outward.
Triceps: Three-headed muscle that covers entire back of upper arm and extends forearm.
Pronator: Found in forearm; turns hand inward so palm faces downward.
Supinator: Found in forearm; turns hand outward so palm faces upward.
Flexors: Bend and flexes the wrist, draws hand up, and closes fingers toward forearm.
Extensors: Straighten wrist, hand, and fingers to form a straight line.

49. Shoulder and Arm Muscles (continued)

50. Muscles of the Hand Abductor – separates fingers
Adductor – draws fingers together

51. Lower Leg Muscles
Extensor digitorum longus – bends foot up and extends toes
Extensor hallucis longus – extends big toe and flexes foot
Tibialis anterior – bends foot upward and inward
Peroneus longus – inverts foot and turns it downward

52. Lower Leg Muscles (continued)
Peroneus brevis – bends foot down and out
Gastrocnemius – attached to lower rear surface of heel and pulls foot down
Soleus – bends foot down

53. Foot Muscles Flexor digiti minimi brevis – moves little toe
Flexor digitorum brevis – moves toes for balance while walking and standing
Abductor hallucis – moves toes and for balance while walking and standing
Abductor digiti minimi – separates toes

54. Nervous System
Neurology – the scientific study of the structure, function, and pathology of the nervous system
Nervous system – controls and coordinates the functions of other systems, making them work harmoniously and efficiently

55. Divisions of the Nervous System
Cerebrospinal system – central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system – carries messages to/from central nervous system
Autonomic nervous system – controls involuntary muscles; regulates smooth muscles
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Principal parts are the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Cerebrospinal system: Also known as the central nervous system. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves, and cranial nerves. It controls consciousness and all mental activities, voluntary functions of the five senses (seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, and tasting), and voluntary muscle actions, including all body movements and facial expressions.
Peripheral nervous system: Made up of sensory and motor nerve fibers that connect the peripheral (outer) parts of the body to the central nervous system. It has both sensory and motor nerves that carry messages to and from the central nervous system.
Autonomic nervous system: Controls the involuntary muscles; regulates the action of the smooth muscles, glands, blood vessels, and heart.

56. Divisions of the Nervous System (continued)

57. Brain and Spinal Cord Brain largest mass of body tissue
Average weight: 44 to 48 ounces
Brain contains 12 pairs of cranial nerves
Spinal cord originates in brain
31 pairs of spinal nerves
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
The brain is the largest mass of tissue in the body.
Its average weight is 44 to 48 ounces.
The brain contains 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which all originate in the brain and reach various parts of the head, face, and neck.
The spinal cord originates in the brain. It is enclosed and protected by the spinal column.
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which extend from the spinal cord to the muscles and skin of the trunk and limbs.

58. Nerve Cell Structure and Function
Neuron or Nerve cell – primary unit
Dendrites – receive impulses from neurons
Axon and Axon terminal – send impulses to other neurons, glands, muscles
Nerves – used to transmit impulses
NERVE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Neuron or Nerve cell: Primary structural unit of nervous system; composed of cell body and nucleus.
Dendrites: Treelike branching of nerve fibers extending from the nerve cell that receives impulses from other neurons.
Axon and Axon terminal: Send impulses to other neurons, glands, and muscles.
Nerves: Long, whitish cords, made up of bundles of fibers held together by connective tissue, through which impulses are transmitted.

59. Types of Nerves Sensory – carry impulses from sense organs to brain
Motor – carry impulses from brain to muscles
Reflex – automatic response to a stimulus (removal of hand from a hot object)
TYPES OF NERVES
Sensory (afferent) nerves: Carry impulses or messages from sense organs to the brain, where sensations of touch, cold, heat, sight, hearing, taste, smell, pain, and pressure are experienced.
Motor (efferent) nerves: Carry impulses from brain to muscles; the transmitted impulses produce movement.
Reflex: Automatic response to a stimulus that involves movement of an impulse from a sensory receptor along an afferent nerve to the spinal cord, and a responsive impulse along an efferent neuron to a muscle, causing a reaction (e.g., the quick removal of a hand from a hot object). Reflexes do not have to be learned.

60. Fifth Cranial Nerve
Ophthalmic – supplies impulses to forehead, eyelids, interior scalp, orbit, eyeball, and nasal passage
Mandibular – affects muscles of chin, lower lip, and external ear
Maxillary – supplies impulses to upper part of face
FIFTH CRANIAL NERVE
Fifth cranial, trifacial, trigeminal nerve: Largest of cranial nerves; chief sensory nerve of face and motor nerve of muscles that control chewing.

61. Fifth Cranial Nerve (continued)

62. Fifth Cranial Branches Affected by Massage
Auriculotemporal – affects external ear and skin above temple
Infraorbital – affects lower eyelid, side of nose, upper lip, and mouth
Infratrochlear – affects membrane and skin of nose
Mentalis – affects skin of lower lip and chin

63. Fifth Cranial Branches Affected by Massage (continued)
Nasal – affects point and lower side of nose
Supraorbital – affects skin of forehead, scalp, eyebrow, and upper eyelid
Supratrochlear – affects skin between eyes and upper side of nose
Zygomatic – affects muscles of upper part of cheek

64. Seventh Cranial Nerve
Posterior auricular – affects muscles behind ear at base of skull
Temporal – affects muscles of temple, side of forehead, eyebrow, eyelid, and upper part of cheek
Zygomatic – affects muscles of upper part of cheek
SEVENTH CRANIAL NERVE: Chief motor nerve of face; emerges near the lower part of ear; its divisions and branches supply and control muscles of facial expression and extend to muscles of neck.

65. Seventh Cranial Nerve (continued)
Buccal – affects muscles of the cheek
Marginal mandibular – affects muscles of the chin and lower lip
Cervical – affects side of neck and platysma

66. Cervical Nerves Greater occipital – affects scalp
Lesser occipital – affects scalp and muscles at base of skull
Greater auricular – affects face, ears, neck, and parotid gland
Cervical cutaneous – affects front and sides of neck to breastbone
Eleventh cranial – controls neck and shoulder motion

67. Nerves of Arm and Hand Digital – supplies fingers of hand
Radial – supplies thumb side of arm and back of hand
Median – supplies the arm and hand
Ulnar – affects little-finger side of arm and palm of hand

68. Nerves of Lower Leg and Foot
Tibial – supplies impulses to the knee, calf muscles, skin of leg, soles of feet, and underside of toes
Common peroneal – extends from behind knee around fibula to front of leg
Deep peroneal (anterior tibial) – extends down front of leg behind muscles
The tibial and common peroneal nerves are divisions of the sciatic nerve.

69. Nerves of Lower Leg and Foot (continued)
Superficial peroneal (musculocutaneous) – supplies impulses to muscles and skin of leg and toes and top of foot
Dorsal cutaneous – begins with superficial peroneal; supplies impulses to toes and top of foot

70. Nerves of Lower Leg and Foot (continued)
Saphenous – supplies impulses to the skin of inner side of leg and foot
Sural – supplies impulses to the skin of outer side and back of leg and foot

71. Circulatory System
Also known as the cardiovascular system or vascular system
Controls steady circulation of the blood through the body by means of the heart and blood vessels
Consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries that distribute blood throughout the body

72. Heart
A muscular, cone-shaped organ that keeps blood moving through the body
The size of a closed fist, weighing approximately 9 ounces
Pericardium – encloses the heart
Resting heart rate – 60 to 80 times per minute

73. Heart Chambers and Valves
Right and left atrium – upper, thin-walled chambers that pump blood to ventricles
Right and left ventricle – lower, thick-walled chambers
Valves – temporarily close a passage or permit blood flow
HEART CHAMBERS AND VALVES
Right and Left Atrium: (auricle) Upper, thin-walled chambers.
Right and Left Ventricle: Lower, thick-walled chambers.
Valves: Allow blood to flow in only one direction.

74. Blood Circulation
Pulmonary circulation – brings blood from heart to lungs for purification
Systemic or general circulation – carries blood from heart through body and back to heart
BLOOD CIRCULATION. The blood is in constant and continuous circulation from leaving the heart upon returning to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation: Brings blood from heart to lungs to be purified.
Systemic or general circulation: Carries blood from heart throughout body and back to heart as follows:
– Blood flows from body into right atrium.
– From right atrium, blood flows through tricuspid valve into right ventricle.
– Right ventricle pumps blood to lungs, where it releases waste gases and receives oxygen; blood is then oxygen rich.
– Oxygen-rich blood returns to heart, entering left atrium.
– From left atrium, blood flows through the mitral valve into left ventricle.
– Blood then leaves left ventricle and travels to all body parts.

75. Blood Vessels Arteries – transport blood to/from heart
Arterioles – deliver blood to capillaries
Capillaries – connect smaller arteries to veins
Venules – collect blood from capillaries and drain it into veins
Veins – contain valves to prevent back flow of impure blood to heart
BLOOD VESSELS: Arteries, capillaries, veins are tubelike in construction. They transport blood to and from the heart and then to various body tissues.
Arteries: Thick-walled muscular and elastic tubes that carry pure blood from the heart to capillaries. The largest artery is the aorta.
Arterioles: Small arteries that deliver blood to capillaries.
Capillaries: Minute, thin-walled vessels that connect smaller arteries to veins; provide tissues with nourishment and elimination of waste products.
Venules: Small vessels that connect capillaries to veins. They collect blood from capillaries and drain it into veins.
Veins: Thin-walled blood vessels; less elastic than arteries. Contain cuplike valves to prevent back flow and carry impure blood from capillaries back to heart; located closer to outer surface of body than arteries.

76. Blood Vessels (continued)

77. Blood Sticky, salty fluid Temperature of 98.6 1/20th of body weight
8 to 10 pints in adults
Bright red in arteries
Dark red in veins (except pulmonary)
BLOOD: Nutritive fluid circulating through the circulatory system; approximately 80 percent water. Composed of red and white corpuscles, platelets, plasma, and hemoglobin.
Sticky, salty fluid
Normal temperature of 98.6° F
Makes up 1/20th of body weight
About 8 to 10 pints fill adult vessels
Bright red in arteries
Dark red in veins (except pulmonary). Color change due to exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen as blood passes through lungs and circulates through body.
An adult heart beats about 30 million times per year and pumps nearly 4,000 gallons of blood every day.

78. Blood Composition Red blood cells – carry oxygen to cells
White blood cells – destroy disease-causing germs
Blood platelets – important to clotting
Plasma – carries food to cells and carbon dioxide away from cells
BLOOD COMPOSITION
Red Corpuscles (red blood cells): Also known as erythrocytes; produced in red bone marrow; contain hemoglobin (a complex iron protein that gives blood its bright red color); carry oxygen to cells.
White Corpuscles (white blood cells): Also called leucocytes; destroy disease-causing germs.
Blood Platelets: Smaller than red blood cells; important to clotting.
Plasma: Fluid part of the blood; strawlike in color; about 90 percent water and contains proteins, sugars, and oxygen; carries food and secretions to cells and carbon dioxide from cells.

79. Blood Functions Carries water, oxygen, food, secretions to cells
Carries away carbon dioxide and waste
Helps equalize body temperature
Works with immune system
Clotting
BLOOD FUNCTIONS
Carries water, oxygen, food, secretions to cells
Carries away carbon dioxide and waste. To be eliminated through lungs, skin, kidneys, and large intestine
Helps equalize body temperature
Works with immune system to protect body from harmful toxins and bacteria
Clotting closes injured, minute blood vessels and prevents excessive blood loss

80. Arteries of Head, Face, and Neck
Common carotid
Internal division
External division
Superficial temporal artery
Occipital artery
Posterior auricular artery
ARTERIES OF HEAD, FACE, AND NECK
Common carotid arteries: Main sources of blood supply to head, face, and neck; located on either side of neck and divided into internal and external carotid arteries.
Internal division: Supplies brain, eye sockets, eyelids, and forehead.
External division: Supplies superficial parts of head, face, and neck.
Superficial temporal artery: Continuation of external carotid artery; supplies blood to muscles on front, side, and top of head.
Occipital artery: Supplies blood to skin and muscles of scalp and back of head up to crown.
Posterior auricular artery: Supplies scalp, the area behind and above ear, and skin behind ear.

81. Arteries of Head, Face, and Neck (continued)
Facial (external maxillary artery) – supplies blood to lower region of face, mouth, nose
Submental: supplies blood to chin and lower lip
Inferior labial: supplies blood to lower lip
Angular: supplies blood to side of nose
Superior labial: supplies blood to upper lip and region of nose
Facial (external maxillary artery): Supplies blood to lower region of face, mouth, and nose.

82. Superficial Temporal Artery
Frontal – supplies blood to forehead and upper eyelids
Parietal – supplies blood to side and crown of head
Transverse facial – supplies blood to skin and masseter
Middle temporal – supplies blood to temples
Anterior auricular – supplies blood to front of ear

83. Branches from External Carotid Artery
Occipital – supplies blood to skin and muscles of scalp and back of head up to crown
Posterior auricular – supplies blood to scalp behind and above ear and skin behind ear

84. Veins of Head, Face, and Neck
Internal jugular – located at side of neck to collect blood from brain and parts of face and neck
External jugular – carries blood returning to heart from head, face, and neck
VEINS OF HEAD, FACE, AND NECK
The most important veins of the face and neck are parallel to arteries with the same name. The blood returns to the heart from the head, face, and neck through these two principle veins:
Internal jugular: Located at side of neck to collect blood from brain and parts of face and neck.
External jugular: Located at side of neck and carries blood returning to heart from head, face, and neck.

85. Blood Supply for Arm and Hand
Ulnar arteries – supply the little-finger side of arm and palm of hand
Radial arteries – supply the thumb-side of arm and back of hand
BLOOD SUPPLY FOR ARM AND HAND
Ulnar arteries: Supply the little-finger side of arm and palm of hand.
Radial arteries: Supply the thumb-side of arm and back of hand.
Veins lie nearer to surface of arms and hands than arteries do.

86. Blood Supply for Foot and Leg
Popliteal artery – supplies blood to foot
Anterior tibial: supplies blood to lower leg muscles and skin on top of foot
Posterior tibial: supplies blood to ankles and back of lower leg.
Dorsalis pedis – supplies blood to foot

87. Lymphatic/Immune System
Made up of lymph, lymph nodes, thymus gland, spleen, and lymph vessels

88. Function of Lymphatic System
Carries waste and impurities away from cells
Protects body from disease by developing immunities and destroying disease-causing microorganisms
Drains tissue spaces of excess interstitial fluid (blood plasma found in spaces between tissue cells)

89. Connection to Cardiovascular System
Both transport streams of fluids throughout body.
Lymphatic vessels start as tubes that are closed at one end.

90. Lymph Capillaries
Blind-end tubes that are the origin of lymphatic vessels
Distributed throughout most of the body (except the nervous system)

91. Lymph Nodes Glandlike structures found inside lymphatic vessels
Filter lymphatic vessels, which helps fight infection.

92. Primary Functions of Lymph Nodes
Carry nourishment from blood to cells
Act as defense against toxins and bacteria
Remove waste material from cells to blood
Provide fluid environment for cells

93. Endocrine System
A group of specialized glands that affect the growth, development, sexual functions, and health of the entire body
Glands – specialized organs that remove certain elements from the blood to convert them into new compounds
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (GLANDS): Specialized organs that affect growth, development, sexual activities, and health of the entire body. Glands are specialized organs that remove certain constituents from the blood to convert them into new compounds.

94. Types of Glands
Exocrine (duct) – produce a substance that travels through small, tubelike ducts. Sweat and oil glands belong to this group.
Endocrine (ductless) – release hormonal secretions directly into the bloodstream. Thyroid and pituitary glands belong to this group.
EXOCRINE (DUCT) GLANDS: Sweat and oil glands of the skin and intestlines
ENDOCRINE (DUCTLESS) GLANDS: Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream and influence welfare of body. Hormones such as insulin, adrenaline, and estrogen stimulate functional activity or secretion in other parts of the body.

95. Hormones
Secretions such as insulin, adrenaline, and estrogen that stimulate functional activity or other secretions in the body and influence the welfare of the entire body

96. Endocrine Glands and Functions
Pineal – impacts sexual development, sleep, and metabolism
Pituitary – affects almost every physiologic process (growth, blood pressure, breast-milk production, etc.)
Thyroid – controls the body’s metabolism

97. Endocrine Glands and Functions (continued)
Parathyroid – regulates blood calcium and phosphorus to aid nervous and muscular system
Pancreas – secretes enzyme-producing cells responsible for digesting carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

98. Endocrine Glands and Functions (continued)
Adrenal – secrete about 30 steroid hormones and control metabolic processes of the body
Ovaries – female sexual glands that function in reproduction
Testes – male sexual glands that function in reproduction

99. Endocrine Glands and Functions (continued)

100. Digestive System
Also known as the gastrointestinal system. It is responsible for breaking down foods into nutrients and waste. It consists of the stomach, intestines, salivary and gastric glands, and other organs.

101. Digestive Enzymes
Chemicals that change foods into a soluble form that can be used by the body. The food is then transported by the bloodstream and used by the body’s cells and tissues. The process takes about nine hours to complete.
DIGESTION: The process of converting food into a form that can be assimilated by the body. The process takes about nine hours.
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES: Chemicals that change food into a form capable of being used by the body. The digestive process takes about nine hours.

102. Excretory System
A group of organs, including the kidneys, liver, skin, large intestine, and lungs, that are responsible for purifying the body by eliminating waste matter
The metabolism of body cells forms toxic substances that, if retained, could poison the body.

103. Assisting Organs Kidneys – excrete urine Liver – discharges toxins
Skin – eliminates waste through perspiration
Large intestine – eliminates decomposed and undigested food
Lungs – exhale carbon dioxide
Each of the listed organs plays a crucial function in the excretory system.

104. Respiratory System
System consisting of the lungs and air passages that enables respiration, supplies the body with oxygen, and eliminates carbon dioxide as a waste product

105. Respiration
The act of breathing; the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the lungs and within each cell

106. Lungs
Spongy tissues composed of microscopic cells in which inhaled air is exchanged for carbon dioxide during one breathing cycle. These organs of respiration are located within the chest cavity and are protected on both sides by the ribs.

107. Diaphragm
The muscular wall that separates the thorax from the abdominal region and helps control breathing

108. Diaphragm (continued)
Inhalation – breathing inward through nose or mouth, during which oxygen is passed to blood
Exhalation – breathing outward, during which carbon dioxide is expelled from lungs

109. Integumentary System
Made up of the skin and its accessory organs such as the oil and sweat glands, sensory receptors, hair and nails
Serves as a protective covering and helps regulate the body’s temperature

110. Reproductive System
Includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina in the female and the testes, prostate gland, penis, and urethra in the male

111. Purpose of Reproductive System
The reproductive system produces offspring and passes on the genetic code from one generation to another.

112. Function of the Reproductive System
The reproductive system produces hormones (primarily estrogen in females and testosterone in males).
Hormones affect change in skin, loss of scalp hair, facial hair growth, pigmentation, and much more.

113. Summary and Review
Why is the study of anatomy, physiology, and histology important to cosmetologists?
Define anatomy, physiology, and histology.
Name and describe the basic structures of a cell.
SUMMARY AND REVIEW
You should be able to see how the study of the anatomy and physiology of the body will be of importance to you in the salon daily. As you study all the various subjects, you will need to understand the applicable anatomy to apply your skills most effectively. When cutting and styling hair, knowledge of the bone structure of the head will aid you in accurately sectioning. When giving massage services, you will need to massage from the insertion to the origin of the muscles so you strengthen rather than stretch them. Your understanding and application of proper nutrition and health will aid you in your professional work by reducing strain and fatigue.
Good personal health is a result of all the body’s systems working together. Early signs of illness, disease, or poor health can often be observed through the hair and nails since they are appendages of the skin. You will want to watch for dull, lifeless hair or nails that peel, become thin, or change color. Clearly, an understanding of the human body is important to both you and your clients’ well-being and health.
1.Why is the study of anatomy, physiology, and histology important to cosmetologists?
Answer: An overview of human anatomy, physiology, and histology is important to cosmetologists because it will enable you to:
Understand how the human body functions as an integrated whole
Recognize changes from what is considered normal for the body
Understand the scientific basis for the proper application of services and products such as scalp manipulations and facials
2.Define anatomy, physiology, and histology.
Answer: The definitions of anatomy, physiology, and histology are:
Anatomy—Study of structures of the human body that can be seen with the naked eye and how the body parts are organized. It is the science of the structure of organisms or of their parts.
Physiology—Study of functions and activities performed by the body’s structures.
Histology—Study of tiny structures found in living tissue. It is also called microscopic anatomy.
3.Name and describe the basic structures of a cell.
Answer: The basic structures of a cell are:
Nucleus—Dense, active protoplasm found in the center of the cell. It plays an important role in cell reproduction and metabolism.
Cytoplasm—The protoplasm of a cell, except for the protoplasm in the nucleus, that surrounds the nucleus. It is the watery fluid that cells need for growth, reproduction, and self-repair.
Cell membrane—The cell part that encloses the protoplasm and permits soluble substances to enter and leave the cell.

114. Summary and Review (continued)
Explain cell metabolism and its purpose.
List and describe the functions of the four types of tissue found in the human body.
What are organs?
4. Explain cell metabolism and its purpose.
Answer: Metabolism is a chemical process that takes place in living organisms, through which the body cells are nourished and carry out their activities. Metabolism has two phases:
1. Anabolism: This is constructive metabolism, the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones. During this process, the body stores water, food, and oxygen for the time when these substances will be needed for cell growth, reproduction, or repair.
2. Catabolism: The phase of metabolism that involves the breaking down of complex compounds within the cells into smaller ones. This process releases energy that has been stored.
Anabolism and catabolism are carried out simultaneously and continually within the cells as part of their normal processes.
5. List and describe the functions of the four types of tissue found in the human body.
Answer: The four types of tissue found in the human body are:
1. Connective tissue: Fibrous tissue that binds together, protects, and supports the various parts of the body. Examples of connective tissue are bone, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, blood, lymph, and fat, which is called adipose tissue.
2. Epithelial tissue: Protective covering on body surfaces. Skin, mucous membranes, the tissue inside the mouth, the lining of the heart, digestive organs, respiratory organs, and glands are examples of epithelial tissue.
3. Muscle tissue: Contracts and moves various parts of the body.
4. Nerve tissue: Carries messages to and from the brain and controls and coordinates all body functions. Nerve tissue is composed of special cells known as neurons that make up the nerves, brain, and spinal cord.
6. What are organs?
Answer: Organs are structures composed of specialized tissues designed to perform specific functions.

115. Summary and Review (continued)
List and describe the functions of the main organs found in the body.
Name the 11 main body systems and their functions.
List the primary functions of the skeletal system.
List and describe the functions of the main organs found in the body.
Answer: The main organs and functions are:
Brain: Controls the body.
Eyes: Control vision.
Heart: Circulates the blood.
Kidneys: Excrete water and waste products.
Lungs: Supply oxygen to the blood.
Liver: Removes toxic products of digestion.
Skin: External protective coating that covers the body.
Stomach and Intestines: Digest food.
Name the 11 main body systems and their functions.
Answer: The 11 main body systems and their functions are:
Circulatory: Controls the steady circulation of the blood through the body by means of the heart and blood vessels.
Digestive: Changes food into nutrients and wastes; consists of mouth, stomach, intestines, salivary and gastric glands, and other organs.
Endocrine: Affects the growth, development, sexual activities, and health of the entire body; consists of specialized glands.
Excretory: Purifies the body by the elimination of waste matter; consists of kidneys, liver, skin, large intestine, and lungs.
Integumentary: Serves as a protective covering and helps in regulating the body’s temperature; consists of skin and its’ accessory organs, such as oil and sweat glands, sensory receptors, hair, and nails.
Lymphatic: Protects the body from disease by developing immunities and destroying disease-causing toxins and bacteria.
Muscular: Covers, shapes, and supports the skeleton tissue; also contracts and moves various parts of the body.
Nervous: Controls and coordinates all other systems inside and outside of the body and makes them work harmoniously and efficiently; consists of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Reproductive: Responsible for processes by which plants and animals produce offspring.
Respiratory: Enables breathing, supplying the body with oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide as a waste product; consists of lungs and air passages.
Skeletal: Physical foundation of the body; consists of 206 bones that vary in size and shape and are connected by movable and immovable joints.
List the primary functions of the skeletal system.
Answer: The skeletal system gives shape and support to the body; protects various internal structures and organs; serves as attachments for muscles and acts as levers to produce body movements; helps to produce both white and red blood cells (one of the functions of bone marrow); and stores most of the body’s calcium, as well as phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium, supply.

116. Summary and Review (continued)
Name and describe the three types of muscle tissue found in the body.
Name and describe the types of nerves found in the body and how they work.
Name and briefly describe the types of blood vessels found in the body.
Name and describe the three types of muscle tissue found in the body.
Answer: The three types of muscle tissue found in the body are:
Striated muscles: Also called skeletal muscles; they are attached to the bones and are voluntarily or consciously controlled. Striated muscles assist in maintaining the body’s posture and protect some internal organs.
Nonstriated muscles: Also called smooth muscles; they are involuntary and function automatically, without conscious will; found in the internal organs of the body, such as the digestive or respiratory systems.
Cardiac muscle: Involuntary muscle that is the heart. This type of muscle is not found in any other part of the body.
Name and describe the types of nerves found in the body and how they work.
Answer: The types of nerves found in the body and how they work are:
Sensory nerves (afferent nerves): Carry impulses or messages from the sense organs to the brain, where sensations such as touch, cold, heat, sight, hearing, taste, smell, pain, and pressure are experienced. Sensory nerve endings called receptors are located close to the surface of the skin. As impulses pass from the sensory nerves to the brain and back through the motor nerves to the muscles, a complete circuit is established, resulting in movement of the muscles.
Motor nerves (efferent nerves): Carry impulses from the brain to the muscles or glands. These transmitted impulses produce movement.
Name and briefly describe the types of blood vessels found in the body.
Answer: The types of blood vessels found in the body are:
Arteries: Thick-walled, muscular, flexible tubes that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the arterioles. The largest artery in the body is the aorta.
Arterioles: Small arteries that deliver blood to capillaries.
Capillaries: Tiny, thin-walled blood vessels that connect the smaller arteries to the venules. They bring nutrients to the cells and carry away waste materials.
Venules: Small vessels that connect the capillaries to the veins. They collect blood from the capillaries and drain it into the veins.
Veins: Thin-walled blood vessels that are less elastic than arteries. They contain cuplike valves that prevent back flow and carry blood containing waste products from capillaries back toward the heart for cleaning and to pick up oxygen. Veins are located closer to the outer skin surface of the body than arteries.

117. Summary and Review (continued)
List and describe the composition of blood.
Name and discuss the two main types of glands found in the human body.
List the organs of the excretory systems and their functions.
List and describe the composition of blood.
Answer: Blood is composed of:
Red blood cells, which are produced in red bone marrow. They contain hemoglobin, a complex iron protein that binds to oxygen; the function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the body cells and transport carbon dioxide from the cells back to the lungs.
White blood cells, also called white corpuscles or leukocytes, which perform the function of destroying disease-causing toxins and bacteria.
Platelets are much smaller than red blood cells. They contribute to the blood-clotting process, which stops bleeding.
Plasma, which is the fluid part of the blood in which the red and white blood cells and platelets flow. It is about 90 percent water and contains proteins and sugars. The main function of plasma is to carry food and other useful substances to the cells and to take carbon dioxide away from the cells.
Name and discuss the two main types of glands found in the human body.
Answer: The two main types of glands found in the human body are:
Exocrine glands, or duct glands, which produce a substance that travels through small tubelike ducts. Sweat and oil glands of the skin belong to this group.
Endocrine glands, or ductless glands, such as the thyroid and pituitary glands, which release secretions called hormones directly into the bloodstream and influence the welfare of the entire body. Hormones such as insulin, adrenaline, and estrogen stimulate functional activity or secretion in other parts of the body.
List the organs of the excretory system and their functions.
Answer: The organs of the excretory system and their functions are:
Kidneys: Excrete waste containing urine.
Liver: Discharges waste containing bile.
Skin: Eliminates waste containing perspiration.
Large intestine: Eliminates decomposed and undigested food.
Lungs: Exhale carbon dioxide.

118. You have completed one unit of study toward course completion.
Congratulations!
You have completed one unit of study toward course completion.