1. Prejudice
Theories and research

2. Definitions (from previous lecture)
Stereotypes
Specific traits attributed to people based on group membership (stereotypes are protypes!)
Prejudice (opposite of allophilia)
Negative attitudes toward the members of a specific group
Discrimination
Negative behaviors directed toward members of a specific group

3. Types of prejudice
Discrimination can be institutional or interpersonal, but prejudice is always interpersonal
Prejudice has two components
Emotional (how you feel about a group)
Cognitive (what you think about a group)
especially the group’s intent and competence to pursue it
Prejudice has many targets
Racism
Linguicism
Ageism
Religious intolerance
Heterosexism
Political intolerance
Classism
Ableism
Sexism

4. Four types of outgroups
Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82,

5. Perception of outgroups (measures)
As viewed by society, how _________ are members of this group?
Competent
Confident
Independent
Competetive
Intelligent
As viewed by society, how __________ are members of this group?
Tolerant
Warm
Good natured
Sincere
Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82,

6. Perception of outgroups
Student sample
Allophilia
Paternalistic prejudice
Contemptuous prejudice
Envious prejudice
Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82,

7. Perception of outgroups
Student sample
Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82,
Community sample in Amherst, MA

8. Perceptions of outgroups

9. Allport’s Scale of Prejudice intensity
Antilocution (1) Antilocution (or hate speech) means a majority group freely makes jokes and refers to a minority group in terms of negative stereotypes and negative images. Harmful or not?
Avoidance (2) People in a minority group are actively avoided by members of the majority group. Harmful how?
Discrimination (3) Minority group is discriminated against through the denial of opportunities and services (prejudice in action).
Physical Attack (4) The majority group vandalizes minority property and carries out violent attacks on individuals or groups.
Extermination (5) The majority group seeks extermination of the minority group.
Antilocution harm is through perpetuation of stereotypes and inaccurate information
Avoidance harm is though isolation and loss of social capital
Discrimination harm is through lack of access to education and employment, as well as political power.
Examples of physical attacks are lynchings of Blacks, pogroms against Jews in Europe, tarring and feathering Mormons in 1800s and British Loyalists in the 1700s.
Examples of extermination are Indian Wars to remove Native Americans, Final Solution of Jewish Problem, and Ethnic cleansing in Armenia.

10. Theories of prejudice Who/what do we blame for prejudice?
A few “bad apples”?
Morally neutral cognitive wiring (information processing)?
A morally corrupt society?

11. Theories of prejudice formation
Psychodynamic theory
Realistic Conflict theory
Social Identity theory
Social Learning theory
Cognitive theory
Classical conditioning theory

12. Theories of prejudice (psychodynamic)
The prejudiced personality
Process: Growing up in authoritarian families
Evidence
Some support (high submissiveness, high conformity)
Many limitations
Ignores situational factors (1952 Virginia mine study)
Ignores sociocultural influences (Princeton study)
Fails to explain uniformity (were all Nazis authoritarian?)
Fails to explain why specific targets are chosen
Fails to explain why most people are capable of out-group prejudice given the right conditions

13. Theories of prejudice (realistic conflict)
Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif, 1961)
Process
We compete over scarce resources
During competition, the “other” is considered an enemy to justify trying to “win”
Enemy is then dehumanized and scapegoated
Evidence
1958 Southern State lynching study
Sherif’s Robber’s Cave study (next 3 slides)
Some limitations
Doesn’t explain why there is no inter-occupation conflict
Doesn’t explain why prejudice occurs when there is little competition

14. Robbers Cave Experiment

15. Robbers Cave Study
Stage 1:
In-group formation

16. Robbers Cave Study
Stage 2:
Group competition

17. Robbers Cave Study
Stage 3:
In-group formation

18. Theories of prejudice formation/change
Social Identity Theory
Identity derived from group affiliation
People tend to attribute positive characteristics to own group and view the other group more critically (ultimate attribution error)
But why does this happen?
Self worth (self-esteem) derived from group achievement and favorable comparisons with other groups
Result: People automatically favor in-group members
Evidence
Minimum group experiments show in-group favoritism
But they don’t show out-group derogation

19. Theories of prejudice formation/change
Social Learning Theory
Allport’s notion of lack of information coupled with hostility
Lack of information makes people rely on stereotypes
Hostility makes them look for a group to scapegoat
Stereotypes lead to prejudice
Social modeling of prejudice (parents/friends/teachers/media)
Few models of anti-racism

20. Theories of prejudice formation/change
Classical conditioning theory
Process: Fear conditioned through secondary conditioning (e.g., walking down street with mom)

21. Even the Well-Intentioned Have Bias
Fiske (2002) - in Western cultures:
about 10% of individuals show blatant racism
about 80% show subtle racial biases
Subtle racial biases:
avoidance of interactions
awkwardness
slips of the tongue
stereotypic assumptions and judgments
From Susan Fiske’s (2002) What we know about bias and intergroup conflict, the problem of the century
Subtle bias comes from conflict between ideals to not be prejudiced and bias
Well-intentioned people rarely express hostility toward out-group, but may withhold liking, respect, positive emotions
Some outgroups envied and respected for perceived competence and high status but resented and disliked b/c they compete with in-group; others are pitied and disrespected but treated warmly b/c they do not threatern
Blame outgroup for own plight

22. Three theories of subtle prejudice
Modern or symbolic racism (Kinder & Sears, 1981)
Blaming the victim
Support of policies that all happen to disadvantage racial minorities
Ambivalent racism (Katz & Hass, 1988)
High scores on pro-Black attitudes (pity for the disadvantaged)
High scores on anti-Black attitudes (hostility toward the deviant)
Aversive racism (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986)
A desire to be egalitarian and non-racist
Unconscious racist cognitions that are manifested during stress or ambiguity

23. Scenes from Crash: Aversive Racism
Character development
Racism or not racism

24. Fighting prejudice
Contact theory (antidote to realistic group conflict)
Equal status contact
Contact should have high acquaintance potential
Out-group members must not conform to stereotypes
Contact situation must encourage cooperation
Group contact must be supported by authority

25. Fighting prejudice (continued)
Work on yourself
Become aware of personal (and societal) stereotypes
Get to know people as individuals who are part of groups
Avoid just-world beliefs
Be aware of self-fulfilling prophecies
Avoid blaming the victim
Work on others
Do not tolerate prejudicial remarks, including jokes
Share what you think and believe, without attacking
Promote multiculturalism
Change the metaphor
Educate yourself
Learn a foreign language
Diversify circle of friends

26. Tolerance is not enough