1. Haruka Iwamura and Kohei Fujikawa
Darfur Case Study
Haruka Iwamura and Kohei Fujikawa

2. Outline Historical Background The Crisis
Actions of the International Community
Failures of the International Community
The R2P Framework
Wheeler’s Criteria
The Situation Today

3. Historical Background
Sudan
Independent since 1956
Ex British colony

4. Historical Background
Civil War divided between north and south from:
South Sudan became
Independent in 2011

5. Historical Background
Ethnicity
3 disparate regions unified into a country by Britain. 134 languages.
Border doesn’t have much to do with geography or demography.
GENERALLY,
North of Sudan is ethnically Muslim
South of Sudan is ethnically black and Christian.

6. Historical Background
Capital Khartoum
(originally slave market to sell blacks)
“Abid”=black people
Means slave.
-Ruled by Arabs

7. Historical Background
Western Sudan (Darfur)
GENERALLY
Arab nomadic tribes.
(Affiliated with
government)
Black Agricultural Tribes

8. Historical Background
- History of peaceful coexistence
Hatred derives from the hierarchy of ethnicity from British colonial rule.
The paler the skin (the more Arabic,) the better.

9. Historical Background
South of Sudan has oil wells
North of Sudan has ports to the Red Sea
People in the north that exported Southern oil made money and stayed in power.

10. Historical Background
-South complains for lack of benefits.
-The South started a rebellion.
South Sudanese War
South eventually won 49% of oil revenues

11. Historical Background
Western Sudan (Darfur)
The Blacks in the West did
not get the benefits since
they were in Northern Sudan.
The Black tribes started a rebellion.
Beginning of the Darfur Crisis
(2003)

12. The Crisis 2003 spring Two rebel movements
SLM (Sudanese Liberation Movement)
JEM (Justice and Equality Movement) started a campaign against political and economic marginalization of Darfur.
The Sudanese government was in the process of negotiations with Southern army
SPLMA (Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army)

13. Sudanese government turns to China and gains weapons to take down the rebellion.
- Annihilate villages.
-Black agricultural
tended to be rebel
sympathizers.

14. Plane bombing during night
During the day, helicopter + machineguns
Janjaweed shot civilians and rape women
Burn houses
Dig up food stores and use oil to destroy them
throw dead bodies on wells.

15. Desertification
Arab herders and black farmers had coexisted for 1000s of years despite tension.
The Sahara desert extended 100 km in the last 40 yrs.
Arab herders sponsored by the government became
Janjaweeds and attacked the Black farmers

16. Over 400 villages destroyed.
Aside from governments vs rebels
Bandits and militias -> looting humanitarian aid. Commit sexual crimes.
Rebels started to fight amongst each other
Leads to more complication

17. Government stance
Avoids serious negotiations with rebel groups.
Refused to prosecute crimes against humanity.
Expelled humanitarian aid groups
300,000 Darfuri refugees in neighboring chad.
300,000 killed.
Janjaweed also attacked the Chad government in April 2006
6 million population. 4.7million is affected somehow.

18. Ceasefire Agreement N’Djamena in Chad
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA
The end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for President Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2004 April
Ceasefire Agreement N’Djamena in Chad
AU sent AMIS
(African Union Mission in Sudan) to Darfur
　 Limitation of AU mission
May
The US sent an investigating commission to Darfur
George W Bush acknowledged it as “genocide”

19. UN Security Council Resolution 1556
2004 July
UN Security Council Resolution 1556
UN asked Sudanese government to disarm Arab militias
⇒ UN didn’t specify to disarm Janjaweed
⇒ Sudanese government didn’t disarm it
Embargoes on weapons against non government
Peace negotiation started Abuja in Nijeria
AU took the lead
⇒ The conference didn’t go smoothly

20. Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA the end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for President Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2005 January
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)
North government – South Sudan Liberation Army(SAL)
Sudanese Civil War ended
A birth of united government
The President : Omar Bashir

21. Embargoes on weapons against Sudanese government
2005 March
UN Resolution 1591
Embargoes on weapons against Sudanese government
UN Resolution 1593
UN decided to entrust a ICC with investigating the violation of international humanitarian law and international human rights law in Darfur

22. Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) Sudanese government – SLA Minnawi
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA the end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for President Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2006 May
Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA)
Sudanese government – SLA Minnawi
(SLA Abdul Wahid al Nur/ JEM refused to join)

23. (It was suggested by US government since 2005 summer)
2006 May
UNSC Resolution 1679
UN decided to shift from AMIS(African Union Mission in Sudan) to UN operation
(It was suggested by US government since 2005 summer)
⇒ Sudanese government refused the expand of UN force

24. UN Secretary General special envoy Eliasson AU special envoy Salim
2006 November
Adis Abeba meeting
Mediation started
Led by :
UN Secretary General special envoy Eliasson
AU special envoy Salim
⇒ both of them retired in 2008 June
Bassole,ex Foreign Minister of Burkina Faso took over

25. Darfur AU/UN mission UNAMID
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA the end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for President Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2007 June
Sudanese government agreed to AU/UN hybrid operation
UNSC Resolution 1769
Darfur AU/UN mission UNAMID
・The protection of civilians
・Monitoring and verifying implementation of agreement
・Contribution to the promotion of human rights and law
・Monitoring and reporting the situation along the borders with Chad and Central Africa
※　(Bashir sent a letter to Kofi Annan. Time-buying tactic?)

26. Peace negotiation Arusha in Tanzania
2007 August
Peace negotiation Arusha in Tanzania
2007 October
Peace negotiation Sirte in Libya
SLA Abdul Wahid al Nul /JEM didn’y participate
No ceasefire agreement

27. Beijing Summer Olimpics Criticism for Chinese reaction to Darfur
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA the end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for president Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2008 August
Beijing Summer Olimpics
Criticism for Chinese reaction to Darfur
by:
・Alan Wolfe (US republican)
・Segolene Royal (candidate of French President)
・Steven Spielberg (he turned down the position of art adviser of Olimpics )

28. ICC promulgated a warrant for President Bashir’s arrest
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA the end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for president Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2009 March
ICC promulgated a warrant for President Bashir’s arrest
⇒ Sudanese government refused
⇒ Govenmet expeled 13 NGOs from Sudan
2010 February
Framework agreement for settelment f Sudan conflict
Sudanese government - JEM
JEM left

29. South Sudan Referendum Decided South Sudan’s independence
2003
Darfur Conflict broke out
2004
AU sent AMIS
2005
CPA the end of Sudanese Civil War
2006
DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement)
2007
AU/UN hybrid operation started
2008
2009
ICC a warrant for president Bashir’s arrest
2010
2011
Independence of South Sudan
2011 January
South Sudan Referendum
Decided South Sudan’s independence
2011 July
Republic of South Sudan

30. Failures of the Int’l Community
Peacekeeping Operations
AMIS-African Union Mission in Sudan (AU) 2004
Only multilateral organization willing to risk soldiers with consent of Sudanese regime.
Inexperienced in finances and military defense matters.
Deployed after heaviest phase of killing was over.

31. Peacekeeping Operations
UNAMID- United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UN+AU)
Replaced underequipped and underfunded African union peacekeeping mission in Darfur.
Resolution operationalized 2008

32. Peacekeeping Operations
Did not have the mandate to proactively protect civilians
Dependent on funding from EU and US
UNAMID- leadership issues

33. Peacekeeping Operations
There is no peace in Darfur so there cannot be peacekeeping.
Romeo Dallaire argued ,
“the clear intent of the resolution was civilian protection. . .the question is what peacekeepers
can realistically do in such a fragile political environment”

34. Failures of the Int’l Community
ICC Arrest warrant 2006
Thirteen NGOs were expelled.
Less information of the crisis came out because NGOs feared being expelled for speaking out.

35. Failures of the Int’l Community
Darfur Peace Agreement 2006
Failure in disarming the Janjaweed after resolution 1556 and 1564.
Only one rebel faction joined. SLA Minawi (JEM and SLA AbdulWahid didn’t)
The Darfur rebellion fractured into more than 15 groups along tribal lines after DPA

36. Failures of Human Rights Council
Dec HRC sent the High Level Mission to assess human rights situation. Sudan refused to grant access to HLM .
Recommendations to Sudan
Take all necessary measures to prevent attacks on civilians
regular police patrols to refugee and IDP camps

37. Failures of the Int’l Society
Possibilities of Intervention
-UNSC has authorized military intervention without consent of the government
-UN has intervened in internal conflicts as threats to international peace
-Groups like Ecowas or NATO have ignored authorization from SC as well
- Already an intervention in South of Sudan

38. The R2P Framework
-First real case of R2P -R2P was unable to free itself from the political dynamics of the international community for the Darfur Crisis. -Advocates of R2P were not able to agree on an effective strategy.

39. -Russia and China: Oil and arms exports Chechnya, Tibet… -USA War on Terror Afghanistan and Iraq Intelligence from Sudan -Arabs Opposed Western-led intervention in North Africa -Threats to peace of Southern Sudan -Towards the fear of Sudan blocking humanitarian aid

40. R2P overestimates norm of intervention until 2005
Many countries didn’t believe that the Responsibility to Protect fell to the Security Council
Arabs , Africans -> AU
Only Romania and Philippines argued Security Council to be primarily responsible.

41. Ambiguities of the R2P Framework
How should civilians be protected?
Who does the responsibility fall to?

42. Wheeler’s criteria ○ × Supreme humanitarian emergency
Necessity/Last Resort ×
Proportionality
Positive Humanitarian Outcome
Humanitarian Motives
Humanitarian Justification
Legality
Selectivity

43. Supreme humanitarian emergency
　　　　　　　　　　　　　 ○
- Population in Darfur million
4.7 million is affected by Darfur Conflict some how ＝more than ¾
- Around 400,000 people were killed
- Millions of refugees
- Is the worst humanitarian case in 21st century
Supreme humanitarian emergency

44. Does peace keeping work in Darfur? Necessity/Last Resort
　　×
- Not enough military force was sent to stop the conflict and help the civilians ×
- AU in 2004, 150 soldiers ⇒ in 2005, 7000 soldiers
- UNAMID in 2009, soldiers (＝ the largest scale in 21st century)
BUT there is no effective peace agreement in Darfur
(DPA in 2006 did not work)
Does peace keeping work in Darfur?
Necessity/Last Resort

45. Positive Humanitarian outcome
　　　　 ×
- Still the conflict lasts in Darfur
- In Independence of South Sudan
⇒　Since then the conflict became worse
- No effective peace agreement in Darfur
(DPA in 2006 is not important because of the absence of some militia groups)
- Arrest warrant to president Bashir in 2009, but still not arrested
- NGOs in Darfur release less information, because they are afraid of being expelled
Positive Humanitarian outcome

46. - International society didn’t want to repeat the disaster like Rwanda○
- International society didn’t want to repeat the disaster like Rwanda
- AU wanted to solve the problem in Africa, and help Africans
Humanitarian Motives

47. ○
- According to the UN Charter, humanitarian intervention is not permitted without UNSC’s resolution
⇔　BUT in 1999 an aerial bombardment by NATO in Serbia without UNSC’s resolution
- Non intervention
State sovereignty, self-determination should be respected
⇔ BUT in humanitarian intervention to Rwanda in
WHY NOT IN DARFUR?

48. Hundred of thousands of refugees → Chad○
According the UN charter, if there’s a threat to the stability of the international society, intervention is allowed.
Hundred of thousands of refugees →　Chad
Legality

49. ○ - No fact that intervention was done to protect only
government / anti-government groups
- US’s reverse selectivity
US China ⇔　ICC
BUT US decided to use ICC to do something for Darfur

50. Situation Today in Darfur
The Conflict still lasts in Darfur
According to the Human Rights Watch’s report, since 2010 December, serious abuse has increased
Government attacks people who are related to anti government groups ⇒　More than 70,000 people had to shelter
-attack, aerial bombing to the villages
-residents have been killed
-house have been razed
-massive looting has taken place
-cutting the road to the neighbor village

51. Situation Today in Darfur
Minni Minawi Leader of SLA (Sudanese Liberation Army) Sighned DPA (Darfur Peace Agreement) in ~2010 December Governmental presidental adviser Chairperson of the Transitional Darfur Regional Authority ⇒ dismissed, back to Juba (capital of South Sudan) takes p arms again Because of the absence of SLA Abdul Wahid al Nur/ JEM DPA did not work, but now DPA does not mean anything