1. Organic Molecules
The Molecules of Life

2. Inorganic Vs. Organic Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon.
Organic molecules do contain carbon.
Organic molecules are more complex structures containing carbon atoms arranged in rings or chains.

3. Biochemistry Biochemistry is the chemistry of living things.
Biochemistry is closely linked to organic chemistry.

4. Carbon: The Central Atom
The carbon atom is the central atom of all organic molecules.
Carbon atoms can join with other carbon atoms to form long chains.
The ends of these chains can join together to form ring structures.

5. Chain And Ring Structures Figure 3.3

6. Carbon: The Central Atom
The bonding sites are all located at equal distances from one another.
Carbon has four electrons in its outermost energy level.
Theses electrons position themselves in a propeller like fashion to be as far away from each other as possible.

7. Carbon: The Central Atom
Carbon has four places it can bond.
It often forms four separate single covalent bonds.
Sometimes carbon forms as double bond as with oxygen.

8. Models of Molecules Figure 3.4

9. Empirical Vs. Structural Formula
An empirical formula indicates the number of each kind of atom within the molecule.
The structural formula indicates the arrangement of the atoms and their bonding within the molecule.
Molecules that have the same empirical formula, but different structural formulas are called isomers.

10. Variety of Organic Molecules
An enormous variety of organic molecules is possible because carbon is able to…
1. Bond at four different places.
2. Form long chains.
3. Combine with many different kinds of atoms.

11. Carbon Skeleton
A carbon skeleton is at the core of all organic molecules.
It is composed of rings or chains.
It determines the overall shape of the molecule.

12. Factors That Determine Differences in Organic Molecules
The length and arrangement of the carbon skeleton.
The kinds and locations of the atoms attached to it.
The ways in which these attached atoms are combined.

13. Functional Groups
Functional groups are specific combinations of atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
These functional groups determine the chemical properties of the molecule.

14. Macromolecules
Macromolecules (macro = large) are very large organic molecules.
Four important kinds of macromolecules:
Carbohydrates.
Proteins.
Nucleic acids.
Lipids.

15. Polymers
Polymers are combinations of many smaller, similar building blocks called monomers (mono = single) bonded together.
Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are all polymers.
The monomers in a polymer are usually combined by a dehydration synthesis reaction.

16. Dehydration Synthesis
Dehydration synthesis (de = remove; Hydro = water; Synthesis = combine) involves combining two molecules through the remove of one molecule of water.

17. Dehydration Synthesis
This reaction occurs when two functional groups (smaller molecules) come close enough to have an –OH removed from one and an –H removed from the other.
These are combined to form a molecule of water and the remaining two segments are combined to form a macromolecule.

18. Dehydration Synthesis: Carbohydrate

19. Dehydration Synthesis: Protein

20. Dehydration Synthesis: Protein

21. Hydrolysis
The reverse of a dehydration synthesis reaction is known as hydrolysis (hydro = water; lyse = to split or break).
Hydrolysis is the process of splitting s larger organic molecule into two or more parts by adding water.

22. Hydrolysis Of Sucrose

23. Levels Of Chemical Organization
Atoms  molecules  monomers (small building blocks)  polymers (macromolecules)  carbohydrate, protein, or nucleic acid.

24. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms linked together to form monomers called simple sugars or monosaccharides (mono = single; Saccharine = sweet, sugar).

25. Carbohydrate Use In Living Cells
Immediate source of energy.
Provide shape to certain cells (I.E. Cellulose in plant walls).
Components of coenzymes and antibiotics.
Components of nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

26. Simple Sugars
Simple sugars have equal numbers of carbon and oxygen molecules and twice as many hydrogen molecules.
C3H6O3 or C5H10O5.
Simple sugars such as glucose, galactose, and fructose provide chemical energy in the human body.
The ending –ose indicates a sugar.

27. Glucose Glucose is called blood sugar in the human bloodstream.
It is found in the sap of plants.
It is the most abundant carbohydrate.
It is a basic building block for other carbohydrates.

28. Glucose

29. Fructose Fructose is fruit sugar.
Glucose and fructose have the same empirical formula, but different structural formulas.
They are isomers.

30. Fructose Isomers

31. Complex Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates are formed when simple sugars are combined.
Disaccharide – two simple sugars bonded together.
Trisaccharide – three simple sugars bonded together.
Polysaccharide – more than three simple sugars bonded together.

32. Disaccharides
Sucrose is the most common disaccharide. Table sugar is sucrose.
Lactose (milk sugar) and maltose (malt sugar) are also disaccharides.
All of the above disaccharides have different levels of relative sweetness, but all break down into glucose.

33. Common Complex Carbohydrates
Cellulose (wood fibers).
Plant starches (amylose).
Glycogen (found in muscle cells).
Humans do not have the enzyme necessary to digest cellulose.

34. Cellulose

35. Glycogen

36. Proteins Amino acid monomers join to form the polymer know as protein.
An amino acid consists of a short carbon skeleton with an amino functional group (nitrogen and two hydrogens) and a carboxylic acid group.
There are about 20 different amino acids.

37. Proteins
Dehydration synthesis combines two amino acids to form a protein.
The nitrogen of an amino group of one amino acid is bonded to the carbon of the acid group of another amino acid.
This bonding forms a peptide bond.

38. Four Levels Of Protein Structure
Primary – a listing of the amino acids in their proper order within the polypeptide.
Secondary – a twisting of specific sequences of amino acids, the shape of which is maintained by hydrogen bonds.

39. Four Levels Of Protein Structure
Tertiary – when multiple twists or coils interact, they can form a globular structure.
Quaternary – when the globular structures from different polypeptides interact, they form a larger globular structure.

41. Denatured Proteins
Energy in the form of heat or light can break down higher levels of protein structure by breaking hydrogen bonds within the molecule. The protein is then said to be denatured.
Brown bottles and refrigeration protect some medications such as insulin from becoming denatured.

42. Types of Proteins
Structural proteins – maintain the shape of cells and organisms.
They make up the shape of cell membranes, muscle cells, tendons, etc.

43. Types of Proteins
Regulator proteins – determine what activities will occur in the organism.
Enzymes and hormones are regulator proteins.
Carrier proteins – pick up and deliver molecules. Transport molecules from one place in the body to another.
Lipoproteins are an example of carrier proteins.

44. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are complex organic polymers that store and transfer genetic information within the cell.
Two types:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Nucleic acids are constructed of monomers known as nucleotides.

45. Nucleotides
Nucleotides provide a source of energy for cellular reactions.
Three parts of a nucleotide:
1. A 5-carbon simple sugar molecule (either deoxyribose or ribose).
2. A phosphate group.
3. A nitrogenous base.

46. Nucleotides DNA has deoxyribose sugar and the bases A, T, G, & C.
RNA has ribose sugar and the bases A, U, G, & C.

47. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
DNA is composed of two strands, which form a twisted ladderlike structure thousands of nucleotides long.
Hydrogen bonds attach base pairs from one strand to the other.

48. Base Pairing Base pairing adheres to strict rules.
Adenine on one strand always pairs with thymine on another strand in DNA (or with uracil in RNA).
Guanine always pairs with cytosine (in both DNA and RNA).
A T (or A U) and G C.

49. Gene A gene is a meaningful genetic message.
It is written using the nitrogenous bases as letters.
An example of a base sequence follows:
CATTAGACT.

50. Coding Strand
The strand of DNA or RNA that contains the message is referred to as the coding strand. The term genetic code comes from this.
Opposite of the coding strand is the non-coding strand. This strand protects the coding strand from chemical and physical damage.
Both strands are twisted in a helix.
3 sets of bases are utilized to make a amino acid.

52. Chromosomes
The human body contains 46 strands of helical DNA called chromosomes. These strands are like different books containing many chapters (genes).

53. Gene
A gene is a segment of DNA that is able to perform the following functions:
1. Replicate by directing the manufacture of copies of itself.
2. Mutate, or chemically change, and transmit these changes to future generations.
3. Store information to determine the characteristics of cells and organisms.
4. Use the information to direct the synthesis of proteins.

54. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) helps with the synthesis of proteins.
3 forms:
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carries the genetic message of DNA to the ribosome.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – an RNA copy of DNA in the form of a ribosome.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – transfers specific amino acids to the ribosome to form the protein molecule.

55. Lipids 3 types of lipids True fats
Phospholipids (component of cell membranes)
Steroids (some hormones)