1. Chapter 4 Cross-Cultural Communication and Negotiation
Chapter 4(2)- Conflict & Negotiation…27

2. Chapter 4(1)- Cross-Cultural Communication

3. Functions of Communication
Communication is the exchange of meaning.
In organizations, it has several functions:
Affecting Behavior – through both formal and informal channels
Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs
Information - facilitating decision making

4. The Communication Process
Source
Encoding
Channel
Decoding
Receiver
Message
Message
Message
Message
Feedback

5. What do you see in the poster?
A small class exercise

6. Perception => Attitudes =>
Process by which people organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment
Perception => Attitudes =>
Motivation & Behavior
People act on their perceptions, not on reality. Because these perceptions can be distorted, people often misinterpret events and activities. When managers want to explain or predict someone’s behavior, they must understand that person’s perception of the world: how he or she organizes and interprets sensory impressions to give meaning to his or her environment.
Factors that can shape or distort perception can reside in the perceiver, in the object, or target, being perceived, or in the context in which the perception is made. When an individual attempts to interpret a target, the following characteristics will heavily influence his or her perception: attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations. The following also influence perception: characteristics of the target and its relationship to its background; and contextual elements, such as time, location, light, or heat.

7. Attitudes Evaluative statements – favorable or unfavorable –
about objects, people, or events;
reflect how one feels about something
Attitudes are evaluative statements (either favorable or unfavorable) about people, objects, or events. OB focuses on a limited number of job-related attitudes--job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction has received the most attention. Job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes about the job; a person who is dissatisfied with a job holds negative attitudes about it.
The most important determinants of job satisfaction are mentally challenging work, equitable pay and rewards, supportive working conditions, and supportive colleagues.
Early views on the satisfaction-productivity relationship asserted that “a happy worker is a productive worker.” But research has shown that if satisfaction does have a positive effect on productivity, it is small. The introduction of moderating variables, however, has improved the relationship. For instance, the relationship is stronger if an employee’s behavior is not constrained by outside factors.
According to a comprehensive review of the evidence, it appears that productivity is more likely to lead to satisfaction than the other way around.

8. Perceiver Effects on Perception
Culture
Personality
Values & Attitudes
Motives
Interests
Past experiences
Expectations

9. Perceptual Shortcuts Assumed Selectivity Similarity Halo Effect
The shortcuts that we use to evaluate others are expeditious, but not foolproof. Because we cannot assimilate everything, what we perceive is selectively chosen depending on our interests, backgrounds, experiences, and attitudes. In assumed similarity, or the “like-me effect,” the observer’s perceptions of others is influenced more by the observer’s own characteristics than by those of the person observed. When we judge someone based on our perception of a group to which he or she belongs, we are stereotyping. When we base our impression of an individual on a single characteristic, such as intelligence or appearance, we are being influenced by the halo effect.
Halo
Effect
Stereotyping

10. Shortcuts to Judging Others
Selectivity - choosing bits of data depending on the interests, background, experience, and attitudes of observer
Assumed Similarity - perceptions of others more influenced by what the observer is like or thinks
Stereotyping - basing perception on group membership or association
Halo Effect - drawing a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance
The shortcuts that we use to evaluate others are expeditious, but not foolproof. Because we cannot assimilate everything, what we perceive is selectively chosen depending on our interests, backgrounds, experiences, and attitudes. In assumed similarity, or the “like-me effect,” the observer’s perceptions of others is influenced more by the observer’s own characteristics than by those of the person observed. When we judge someone based on our perception of a group to which he or she belongs, we are stereotyping. When we base our impression of an individual on a single characteristic, such as intelligence or appearance, we are being influenced by the halo effect.

11. Perception, Attitudes, and Personality
Culturally based stereotypes
Swiss: punctual
Germans: task–oriented
Americans: energetic
People who hold these stereotypes experience surprises when they meet people from these countries who do not fit the stereotypes

12. Perception, Attitudes, and Personality (Cont.)
Culturally based stereotypes (cont.)
Project aspects of own culture onto people and situations in a different culture
Assumes that the new culture mirrors their own
Example: Korean manager visiting Sweden assumes all women seated behind desks are secretaries
Such behavior would be inappropriate and possibly dysfunctional in Sweden where many women hold management positions

13. Helpful Stereotyping A stereotype can become helpful when it is
Consciously held: people are aware it describes a group norm and not individual characteristic
Descriptive rather evaluative: how people are, not whether they’re good or bad
Accurate: based on data or sufficient experience
First best guess: about a group, before acquiring specific information on individuals
Dynamic & Flexible: modifiable according to further observation and experience with concrete situations

14. Types of Communication
Verbal:
Oral
Face-to-face
Distant (phone, video)
Written
Print
Electronic
Non-Verbal

15. Overall Communication Process
Verbal Communication Styles
Context
Information that surrounds a communication and helps to convey the message
High-context societies
Messages often are coded and implicit
Rely on indirect style

16. Overall Communication Process
Low-context societies
Message is explicit and the speaker says precisely what s/he means
Rely on direct style
Three degrees of communication quantity
Elaborate
Exacting
Succinct

17. High- vs. Low-Context Cultures
High Context
Low Context
Chinese
Korean
Vietnamese
Arab
Greek
Spanish
Italian
English
French
North American
Scandinavian
German
Swiss

18. Overall Communication Process (cont.)
Verbal Communication Styles (cont.)
Contextual style
Focuses on the speaker and relationship of the parties
Personal style
Focuses on the speaker and the reduction of barriers between the parties

19. Overall Communication Process (cont.)
Affective style
Characterized by language which requires the listener to carefully note what is being said and to observe how the sender is presenting the message
Instrumental style
Goal-oriented and focuses on the sender

20. Verbal Styles Used in 10 Select Countries
Indirect
vs.
Direct
Elaborate
vs.
Succinct
Contextual
vs.
Personal
Affective
vs.
Instrumental
Country
Australia Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental
Canada Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental
Denmark Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental
Egypt Indirect Elaborate Contextual Affective
England Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental
Japan Indirect Succinct Contextual Affective
Korea Indirect Succinct Contextual Affective
Saudi Arabia Indirect Elaborate Contextual Affective
Sweden Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental
United States Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental

21. Non-verbal Communication
Body movement (‘Body Language’) adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication
Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body
Intonations - Change the meaning of the message
Facial expression - Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said
Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms

22. Cross-Cultural Communication
Nonverbal communication: a major role across cultures
Distance between people
North Americans: stand 5 1/2 to 8 feet apart
Latin American cultures: people stand much closer
Reactions
Latin American moves close to the North American
North American backs away
Latin American might perceive the North American as cold and distant

23. Personal Space Categories for Those In the United States
Intimate distance
18”
Personal distance
18” to 4’
Social distance
4’ to 8’
8’ to 10’
Public distance

24. Cross-Cultural Communication
Time orientation
Latin Americans view time more casually than North Americans
Swiss strongly emphasize promptness in keeping appointments
Egyptians usually do not look to the future

25. Cross-Cultural Communication
Time orientation (cont.)
Southeast Asians view the long term as centuries
Sioux Indians of the United States do not have words for "time" or "wait" in their native language
Potential misunderstandings are large

26. Exercise: Identifying Emotions

27. Emotions & National Culture
Cultural factors influence what is or is not considered emotionally appropriate
Seems to be high agreement of meaning by emotions within cultures
What’s acceptable in one culture may seem extremely unusual or dysfunctional in another

28. A Cultural Guide to Communication
Look for the meaning behind the words
Assume differences until similarity is proved
Know what you don’t know
Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation (of others)
Practice empathy & patience
Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis
Always: Observe & Listen

29. Chapter 4(2)-Conflict & Negotiation

30. Trust & Culture Individualistic Collectivist
Personal history & experience based
Develops through mutual interest (rational)
Quicker to trust out-group members
Consistency emphasized
Collectivist
In-group membership based
Develops more through emotional bonds
Slow trusting out-group members
Context is important

31. Conflict
Conflict is where one party perceives that another party acting purposefully in a way that upsets the first party or blocks its pursue of goals and interests
“Why can't the Jews and the Arabs just sit down together and settle this like good Christians?”
- Attributed to Arthur Balfour, 19th century British statesman, Prime Minister, and Foreign Secretary; speaking on the Middle-east Crisis

32. Differences in Attitudes
Italian managers: bypassing a manager to reach a subordinate employee is insubordination
Swedish and Austrian organizations: decentralized decision making
Philippine and Indian organizations: centralized decision making
Conclusion: organizations that cross national borders and draw managers from many different countries have high conflict potential.

33. International Aspects of Conflict
Cultures that emphasize individualism and competition
Positively value conflict
English–speaking countries, the Netherlands, Italy, Belgium
Cultures that emphasize collaboration, cooperation, conformity
Negatively value conflict
Many Asian and Latin American countries; Portugal, Greece, Turkey

34. International Aspects of Conflict
Cultural differences imply different functional conflict levels
Some cultures favour suppression of conflict with little discussion of people's feelings
Felt conflict likely part of some conflict episodes but hidden from public view

35. Conflict (Cont.)
Managers from an individualistic country operating in a less individualistic country
Acceptable to express feelings during a conflict episode. Suppression of feelings could baffle them
Increasing conflict can confuse local people. Almost immediate dysfunctional results

36. Negotiation
The process in which two or more parties communicate and exchange goods or services in an attempt to rich a mutually agreeable solution

37. Cultural Differences in Negotiations
Negotiating styles vary among national cultures; for effective cross-cultural negotiation, you need to understand other party’s communication patterns, time orientations, social behavior and idiosyncratic national issues.

38. Successful Negotiators’ CharacteristicsUS
Japanese
Taiwanese
Brazilian
Preparation & planning skill
Dedication to job
Persistence & determination
Thinking under pressure
Perceive & exploit power
Win respect & confidence
Judgment & intelligence
Verbally expressive
Integrity
Product knowledge
Demonstrate listening skills
Interesting
Broad perspective
Competitive

39. Cultural Differences in Negotiations
Cultural context significantly influences:
History & identity in relation to conflict
Time frame (short/long; deadlines)
Emphasis on rationality/emotion/ideals
The amount and type of preparation for bargaining
Participants: few essential or ‘the more the merrier’; young professional or respectable elder
The relative emphasis on task versus interpersonal relationships and formal vs. informal mechanisms (e.g., lawyers)

40. Differences in Negotiations
Where the negotiation should be conducted (business/leisure) and emphasis on entertainment
Communication patterns (verbal/nonverbal); direct vs. non-direct rejection
The tactics used:
Extent of bargaining
Initial offers—extreme or moderate
Nonverbal behavior

41. Verbal Tactics (per ½ hour session)
Behavior US
Brazilian
Japanese
Promise 8 3 7
Normative 2 1 4
Commitment 13 15
Self-Disclosure 36 39 34
Command 6 14
“No’s” 9
83.4
5.7
Profit level
57.3
75.2
61.5
Initial concessions
7.1
9.4
6.5

42. Nonverbal Tactics Behavior US Brazilian Japanese 3.5 5.5 10.3 28.6
Silent periods (per 30 min.)
3.5
5.5
Conversational overlaps (per 10 min.)
10.3
28.6
12.6
Facial gazing (minutes per 10 min.)
3.3
5.2
1.3
Touching (per 30 min.)
4.7