1. ● Learning Modes ● Theories of Learning ● Types of Memory ● Learning Modes ● Theories of Learning ● Types of Memory Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels for use by Walden U. students, and teachers of Advanced General Psychology

2. Unstructured Peer-Group Interaction and Play Vessels’ Learning Modes Kevin Ryan’s Learning Modes Interpersonal and Environmental Support (Relationships) ETHOS Developmentally Appropriate Discipline & Reinforcement EXPECTATIONS Observation & Modeling EXAMPLE Direct Instruction EXPLANATION Experiential Learning in Classroom and School Communities EXPERIENCE Service Learning & Experiences in the Larger Community This alignment was created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©. Professor Kevin Ryan may or may not agree that his five E’s correspond to Dr. Vessels’ seven modes exactly as shown above. Professor Ryan’s work precedes Dr. Vessels work by many years, and it is presented here as validation of Dr. Vessels’ similarly eclectic approach.

3. Vessels’ Learning ModesValidating Theorists Interpersonal and Environmental Support RogersRogers, Damon, Baumrind, Knowles,Knowles Benson, Piaget, Lave, Kagan, Havighurst,PiagetLave DeVries, Erikson, Vygotsky, BrunerVygotskyBruner Unstructured Peer-Group Interaction and Play Developmentally Appropriate Discipline & Reinforcement SkinnerSkinner, Knowles, Damon, Tolman, Gagne,DamonTolman ThorndikeThorndike, Aristotle, Havighurst, Baumrind, HullHull, Aristotle, Hoffman Observation & Modeling Didactics or Direct Instruction J. AndersonJ. Anderson, Shweder, Norman, Ausubel, Damon, Kohler, G. Miller, Durkheim, Gardner, Vygotsky, Bloom, Sternberg, Rumelhardt, McClelland, Lynn, HoffmanShwederNormanAusubelG. MillerDurkheimGardner VygotskyBloomSternbergRumelhardt, McClellandLynn, Hoffman Active Participation Within Classroom and School Communities PiagetPiaget, Dewey, Bruner, Turiel, Nucci,DeweyBruner LaveLave, Damon, Erikson, Socrates, Vygotsky, KnowlesKnowles, Kohlberg, DeVries, Rogers,KohlbergRogers GagneGagne, Schaps, BrunerBruner LaveLave, Rogers, Durkheim, Bandura,RogersDurkheimBandura Benson, ShwederShweder Piaget, Vygotsky, Rogers,VygotskyRogers DeVries, Lave, Turiel, BrunerLaveBruner BanduraBandura, Gagne, Vygotsky, Mischel,GagneVygotsky RotterRotter, KohlbergKohlberg Service Learning & Learning in the Larger Community This alignment was created by Dr. Gordon Vessels. The theorists shown above and/or experts who know their work well may not agree that the work of these individuals supports the learning modes with which they are aligned and/or that their work is limited to a particular learning mode.

4. Vessels’ Learning ModesRelevant Concepts/Methods Interpersonal and Environmental Support Unstructured Peer-Group Interaction and Play Developmentally Appropriate Discipline & Reinforcement Observation & Modeling Didactics or Direct Instruction Active Participation Within Classroom and School Communities Service Learning & Learning in the Larger Community Experiential Learning, Respectful Engagement, Authoritative Parenting, Situated Learning, Love That Fosters Identification, Constructivism, Differentiated Instruction, Unconditional Regard Experiential Learning, Spontaneous Game Play, Situated Learning, Constructivism Operant Conditioning, Sign Learning, Connectionism, Conditions of Learning, Ethics of Fear and Shame, Heteronomy, Authoritarian Conscience, Authoritative Parenting/Teaching, Feedback, Practice, Habit Formation, Induction Social Learning, Conditions of Learning, Zone of Proximal Development, Scaffolding, Vicarious Reinforcement, Just Community Subsumption, Information Processing, Socialization, Multiple Intelligences, Social Development, Heteronomy, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Componential Subtheory, Learning Styles, Differentiated Instruction, AssimilationBloom Progressive Education, Democratic Education, Constructivism, Situated Learning, Respectful Engagement, Social Learning, Zone of Proximal Development, Experiential Learning, Conditions of Learning, Collaborative Learning, Just Community Situated Learning, Experiential Learning, Socialization, Social Learning, Communitarianism, Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2003 ©

5. ENJOY THE AFTER IMAGES by Gordon Vessels ©

6. Stimulus and response (behavior) in classical and operant conditioning: Thorndike, Hull, Watson, Skinner CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Result: Horn Eye Blink TIME OPERANT CONDITIONING Result: Whistle Sit Up AntecedentsConsequencesBehavior ABC Reinforcer Food Stimulus Clap Behavior Sit Up The whistle is an antecedent discriminative stimulus. Behavior occurring in its presence will continue if reinforced. Key Relationship Stimulus Horn Behavior Eye Blink CSUCSUCR CSCR Stimulus Horn Stimulus Air Puff Behavior Eye Blink Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

7. Types of Reinforcement and Punishment negative reinforcer received Punishment negative reinforcer received Punishment positive reinforcer removed Negative Punishment positive reinforcer removed Negative Punishment Negative Reinforcement negative reinforcer removed Negative Reinforcement negative reinforcer removed Positive Reinforcement positive reinforcer received Positive Reinforcement positive reinforcer received After a Behavior, a Reinforcer is: Removed Presented Type of Operant Event Pleasant Unpleasant Positive Reinforcers: (Primary) (Secondary) food & water; money & praise Negative Reinforcers: (Primary) (Secondary) shock & headache; rejection & criticism Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

8. BEHAVIOR CHANGE METHODS FOR BEHAVIOR CHANGE MechanismDefinitionExamples Positive Reinforcement Encouraging a behavior by giving a desired reward or reinforcer thereafter Giving a child candy when he brings in a homework assignment; Saying “good girl” to a baby who swallows a spoonful of food. Negative Reinforcement Encouraging a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus thereafter Ceasing to scold a child when he hangs up his clothes; Giving in to a roommate or spouse in order to bring an argument to an end Punishment Giving an aversive stimulus in response to an undesired behavior to suppress it Slapping a child for swearing at his parent; making a child do chores after getting into a fight with a classmate Negative Punishment Removing a desired reward or activity in response to undesirable behavior Sending a child to her room without toys because she refused to share her toys; refusing to speak to a spouse who was rude. Extinction Gradually eliminating a behavior by removing the reinforcers that follow it Ignoring a child when he has a temper tantrum; drastically cutting the possible winnings in a state lottery Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

9. Social Learning; Situated Learning Sociocultural Expectancy Constructivism; Discovery Learning ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT; COMMUNITY; INQUIRY CENTERS; SCAFFOLDING; COOPERATION; COLLABORATION; OBSERVATION; VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT; SCHEMAS; MENTAL MAPS; RESPECTFUL ENGAGEMENT; NETWORKS Information Processing Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

10. Assumptions Major Theories Instruction Checklists Cooperative Learning Collaborative Learning Communities of Learning Social-Cognitive Constructivism Bandura: Social-Learning ( social-cognitive) Lave: Situated Learning Vygotsky: Sociocultural Development Role of Cognition Behavioral Outcomes Observation a Key Social Interaction a Key Apprenticeships Authentic Activities Problem Solving Anchored Instruction SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES Rotter: Expectancy Zone of Proximal Development Piaget Bandura Rotter Lave Vygotsky Piaget Bruner: Discovery Bruner SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005 Modeled after a chart created by Y.W. Kreher that can be found at http://web.syr.edu/~ywkreher/IDE%20621%20KB/SOCIAL_LEARNING/ ywkreher@syr.edu http://web.syr.edu/~ywkreher/IDE%20621%20KB/SOCIAL_LEARNING/

11. Piaget’s theory of learning is based on the proposition that the child [or person] builds cognitive structures, that is, mental maps, concept networks, or schemas that are used to understand and respond to new learning experiences. His several stages of development explain how these structures and their use in thinking change qualitatively with maturation. If the child’s learning experience fits existing schemas or cognitive structures of knowledge, it is assimilated; if the learning experience is relatively unfamiliar, different, or novel in some way, the child [person] loses equilibrium and must rebuild one or more schemas or networks of cognitive structures to accommodate the new information. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

12. Focus on the Learner The Role of the Learner Learning Is... The Role of the Teacher Assess the Individual Learner Cognitive Stimulation Open-Minded Guide Facilitator Set Limits Use Technology Double Lesson Responsible for his own learning Challenge Creativity Encourage Independent Thinking Make Suggestions Give Recommendations Possibilities, current levels, etc. Strengths: cognitive, artistic, etc. Developmental Needs: social, moral, etc. Feelings, personality, learning style, etc. Learning Along the Way Counseling Show “Direction” Organize Plan Stimulate modeling, etc. to support the research Internet access and share information Software as a tool to reach learning goals Overall: Organize own work Desirable traits Learn new way to learn Learn new information Curious Initiative Persistence Learning is an active process Motivation is the key to learning Experience plays a critical role in learning Humans have a cognitive predisposition to... Learning is contextualized Learning is a social activity Learning takes time Focus on... Accepts learner autonomy Focus on learning rather than teaching Learner has will Learner has purpose Encourages learner inquiry Encourages learner curiosity Encourages learner initiative Learner has existing beliefs Learner has existing attitudes Learner has existing knowledge Select and transform information Construct hypotheses Make choices Related to the rest of their life Related to their prejudices Related to their fears Cooperative learning is supported Learning involves language Learning involves being in real-world situations Encourages dialogue Between students Between student and teacher Reflection Maturation Deep understanding Authentic Performance ConstructivismConstructivism Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005 Discovery Learning This is a methodology related to Piaget’s work, but it may not reflect his thinking about adult-child relations. Jerome Bruner This chart is an elaborated version of one created by Sinia and retrived from http://www.uib.no/People/sinia/CSCL/HMM_Constructivism.htm Contact Sinia at sinia@rasmus.uib.no or the Universitetet I Bergen in Norway. http://www.uib.no/People/sinia/CSCL/HMM_Constructivism.htm sinia@rasmus.uib.no

13. Jerome Bruner’s Constructivism and Discovery Learning Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database; Copyright 1994-2004 Greg Kearsley (gkearsley@sprynet.com) http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley Permission is granted to use these materials for any educational, scholarly, or non-commercial purpose. 2. Students’ predisposition toward learning 1. Structuring of information so it can be grasped 4. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments Instruction should address the following: 3. Sequencing of information presented Learning is an active process wherein the learner constructs new concepts built on prior learning. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions while relying on cognitive structures or schemas. The teacher encourages students to discover. They engage in an active dialogue. Teacher translates information into a format appropriate to the student’s current understanding Curriculum is spiraled so students build on what they know.

14. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory or Observational Learning Theory Observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model in a particular environment — direct interaction with the model is not necessary VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT: Observer’s behavior is affected by the positive and/or negative consequences the model experiences as a result of his or her behavior. IDENTIFICATION/ ADMIRATION: Observer’s imitation of the model is more likely if the model possesses characteristics the observer finds attractive or like themselves. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

15. Attention Retention Production Motivation Social/Observational Learning Processes VerbalImagery Organize Initiate Monitor Refine Consequences Self- Reward Incentives Potential Forms of Reinforcement Extrinsic Intrinsic Vicarious Self - Reinforcement Model Activity Subject Characteristic of: ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

16. Scaffolding -- where the adult adjusts the level of help in response to the child's level of performance -- is an effective teaching tool. It produces immediate results and leads to independent problem solving. ZPD is the distance between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance. Things that can be done with little support Things that can be done with much support Things that cannot be done even with support Things that can be done without help from others ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT Cognitive development results from a dialectical process wherein children learn through problem-solving experiences they share with adults or “more knowledgeable others.” Initially, the adult assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the child’s problem solving. But gradually this responsibility transfers to the child. A difference exists between what the child can do on his own and what the child can do with adult help. Vygotsky calls this the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Since much of what children learn comes from the culture, and since much of their problem solving is mediated by parents or adults, or more knowledgeable others, they should not be taught alone or in isolation. With the right kind of adult help, children can perform tasks they cannot complete on their own. LEV VYGOTSKY Vygotsky said that learning leads development. Piaget said that development leads learning. A Social-Cognitive Theory of...Learning and Development Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005. Some of the information above paraphrases that retrieved from Funderstanding at http://www.funderstanding.com/about_us.cfm http://www.funderstanding.com/about_us.cfm

17. Reinforcement Value refers to the desirability of these outcomes. Things we want to happen, that we are attracted to, have a high reinforcement value. Rotter’s Social Learning Theory Combines Behaviorism and Personality Research To understand behavior, one must take (a) the individual (life history of learning and experiences) and (b) the environment (stimuli the person is aware of and responding to) into account. If you change the way the person thinks, or change the environment he or she is responding to, you change behavior. Behavior Potential is the likelihood of engaging in a particular behavior in a specific situation. Expectancy is the subjective probability that a given behavior will lead to a particular outcome, or reinforcer. Behavior Potential (BP), Expectancy (E) and Reinforcement Value (RV) can be combined into a predictive formula for behavior: BP = f(E & RV) Although the psychological situation does not figure directly into Rotter's formula for predicting behavior, he believes it is always important to keep in mind that people interpret the same situation differently. = f Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

18. Facilitate “authentic” activity. Provide a context that reflects the way knowledge is used and developed in real- life. Provide Insight through multiple perspectives and changing roles for community members. Support collaborative construction of knowledge. Provide support and mentoring. Promote reflection to build abstractions. Promote articulation to render competencies explicit. Situated learning (Greeno, 1989; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) proposes that inquiries into learning and cognition must take account of social interaction and physical activity. A unifying concept emerging from related research is "communities of practice” -- the idea that learning is constituted through the sharing of purposeful, patterned activity (Lave & Wenger, 1991). This idea stresses "practice" and "community" equally. Communities of Practice Social Practice Meanings Understandings & Beliefs Values Activity Authentic Learning Knowledge Social Framework Communities of Practice Knowledge is situated, thus, in part, a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used (Brown et al., 1989). Culture The nature of knowledge is socially embedded (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Social Framework II Socially created networks across cultures Concepts Re-created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005 Brown. J.S., Collins, A.. & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, p. 32-42. Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991) Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

19. Sensory Input Sensory Memory, Store, or Register Short-term and Working Memory or Store Long-term Memory or Store Attention Long-term Memory Schema Activation Encoding Activated information from sensory store and activated memory schemas is rehearsed, studied, reviewed, used, interpreted, transformed, etc. Schema knowledge clusters are being created, expanded, and interconnected. Unrehearsed and unused information lost in 10 to 15 seconds Some information lost over time depending on depth and extent of schematic encoding Long-term Memory Schema Activation Increasing attention to relevant sensory stimuli All sensory input is lost in.5 to 3 seconds if not attended to INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

20. Working Memory Working Memory Short-term memory and working memory include what you are conscious-of, thinking- about, or concentrating-on including perceptions and cognitions. It refers to your capacity to keep a limited amount of information in an active state. External Events External Events Long- Term Memory Long- Term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Perceived Information Attended-To Information Activated Long- Term Memory Schemas Information Linked with Long-Term Memory Schemas and/or Adequately Rehearsed Information gets from STM to LTM if it can be meaningfully incorporated into activated schemas or existing knowledge that has been temporarily brought into the STM or “Working Memory” as well. 7± 2 bits Sensory Memory Register Sensory Memory Register Short- Term Memory Short- Term Memory Created by G. Vessels, 2004

21. Sensory MemoryRegisterMemory General Lasts a very brief 1 to 3 seconds Holds information in an unprocessed state Takes place without conscious awareness Iconic Memory Short-term sensory register for vision Apparently holds everything we see Lasts less than one second unfortunately Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

22. Short-Term Memory (new information)information Limited 7 ± 2 items and/or “chunks” of items ─ discovered by George Miller and W. Wundt A chunk is a cluster, unit, or grouping of items that can be processed as one item. Its discovery is attributed to George Miller. Lasts 10-20 seconds The duration can be extended through attention and rehearsal. Other uses and connections move it into working memory. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

23. Working Memory (active, conscious memory) Perhaps still limited to 7 ± 2 items and/or “chunks” of items at any given moment. These items and/or chunks can come from long-term memory through retrieval or relatively automatic activation of long-term memory schemas, and/or from short-term memory as new information. Lasts indefinitely as one concentrates and acts upon or transforms the information in some way through simple rehearsal or one or more of many forms of “higher-level” mental processing. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

24. Working Memory (continued) A system for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information. Underlies more complex cognitive tasks: Learning (encoding) Retrieval Comprehension Reasoning. Temporary storage of information processed in a range of different cognitive tasks. Enables independent and diverse types of information to interact. Thus, a common system that operates across a broad range of tasks and types of information. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

25. Baddey and Hitch’s Model of Working Memory Baddeley, A.D. & Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Volume 8. New York: Academic Press. Central Executive Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Phonological Store Articulatory loop

26. A Revised Working Memory Model – Baddeley 2001 Central Executive Central Executive Visuospatial Sketch Pad Phonological Store Episodic Buffer Episodic Buffer Visual Semantics Visual Semantics Episodic LTM Episodic LTM Language Baddeley, A.D. (2001). Is working memory still working? American Psychologist, 56, p. 851-864.

27. The Central Executive Most complex and least understood component of Working Memory “In some ways the Central Executive functions more like an attentional system than a memory store” - Baddeley (1997) Model suggests that the Central Executive (CE) coordinates the activity of its two slave systems. Other possible functions for the CE include coordinating retrieval strategies, guiding selective attention, temporarily activating long term memory schemas, suppression of habitual responses.

28. Long-Term Memory Relatively permanent memory. Structured cognitively as (1) a network of linked or interconnected nodes that form complex memory schemas and/or (2) levels of meaning and understanding, from shallow to deep, that reflect how the person encountered and has used the information (e.g. active-experiential learning that involved discovery and some form of application requiring reasoning would presumably place the information at a deep and more permanent, retrievable, and usable level in long-term memory). Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

29. Organizing Info & Encoding Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode Chunking Magical Number 7±2 “ciacnnabccbsnbc” ROYGBIV Hierarchies Broad Concepts First Details Next Like Outlined Notes Vessels reworking of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 Slide

30. Separate Processing & Storage Semantic Facts/General Knowledge Episodic Experienced events Procedural Skills Motor/Cognitive Dispositions Class/Operant Conditioning Explicit knowing you know Implicit not knowing you know Types of Long-Term Memory Memory Vessels re-working of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 slide, which is available through the American Psychological Society.

31. Remembering: Retrieval Cues Recognition Identification of items previously learned Recall Retrieval of information previously learned Retrieval Cues - help us to remember Web of Associations or LTM Schemas “ hare ” Vessels re-working of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 slide which is available through the American Psychological Society via J. Krantz. Priming Activation of a connected node (Implicit)

32. LTM - semantic network DOG SHEEPDOG HOUND BEAGLE SNOOPY LASSIE COLLIE ANIMAL CARTOON DOGS ON TV DOGS ON TV HUNTING BREEDS SHADOW Moves Tracks Is a Small Size Friend of Charlie Brown Cartoon Book Character Brown & White Dog on TV Book Character Brown & White Is a Instance Brown, White, Black Instance Brown, White, Black Medium Size Is a Four Legs Barks Works Sheep Breathes Domesticated Wild Working Dogs Instance REAL DOGS ON TV Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

33. Memory/Concept Schemas Situations and events Expectations Generally accurate rules of thumb Recognition and understanding Correct Predictions Top down processing Sequences of events Experts Memory selection areinclude Operate in guide provide Are aboutareexploit are Differ from Allow predictions of new are include Can be Violate our Can lead to can Causes us to Is not Studied by usesIs for Does not store Researched by are Understood better by Occur over stores has Make sense within proper framework Use our own culturally consistent material Harris et al. Background knowledge Inevitable Misremember Grammatical Structure Meaning of message Two approaches Clusters of objects Bottom-up processing Extended period of time Cognitive processes Exact Words Guided by requires includes usesLinked with Can use Can help in Also studied is Can mislead in Mental models More memorable Earlier material Relevant schema Schema activation Verbatim memory Recall Incidental learning Office schema Attention e.g. emphasizes Is shifted to remember involves Has consequences on Says people can control Developed by Emphasizes active nature of Constructive approach Pragmatic approach Murphy and Shapiro Abstractions Schema inconsistent material Are an Interpretation Bartlett Categories Scripts Generalized knowledge Heuristics Errors Integration Schema consistent material Four phases of memory Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

34. Forgetting Proactive Interference Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later Proactive Interference Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later Retroactive Interference Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier. Retroactive Interference Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier. PastPastPresentPresent PastPastPresentPresent Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

35. Forgetting As Retrieval Failure Some info may never make it to LTM Encoding Failure Some info may never make it to LTM Encoding Failure Some info may not make it out of LTM Interference Some info may not make it out of LTM Interference Proactive vs Retroactive Interference Proactive vs Retroactive Interference Interference Interference - learning some items may Interfere with learning other items Interference Interference - learning some items may Interfere with learning other items Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

36. Behaviorism Information Processing Constructivism How is learning described? A change in the probability of a particular behavior occurring in a particular situation. A change in knowledge as stored in memory. A change in meaning constructed from experience. How is learning viewed? An antecedent, prompts a behavior that is followed by some consequence. Involves several processes: attention, working memory, encoding into long-term memory schemas, retrieval. Interplay among students' existing knowledge, the social context, and the problems to be solved. What is the teacher's role? To arrange the reinforcement contingencies and present them to the students. To guide and support cognitive processes that support various memory functions. To provide students with a collaborative learning situation, and to function as a coach and facilitator. How does the teacher carry out his or her roll? ▪ State objectives of the instruction as learner behaviors; Use cues to guide students to desired behavior; Use consequences to reinforce desired behavior. ▪ Organize new information; Link new information to existing knowledge; Use techniques to guide and support students' attention, encoding, and retrieval. Provide students with "good problems" that stimulate exploration and discovery; Create group learning activities; Model and guide the knowledge- construction process. Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

37. Learn about My eCoach® - Coaching and Mentoring, Educational Resources, Technology Tutorials Learn about My eCoach® - Coaching and Mentoring, Educational Resources, Technology Tutorials created by Leilani Carbonell leilani@my-ecoach.com Last Updated - April 2004 leilani@my-ecoach.com PerspectiveBehavioral Information Processing Constructivist Background Early 20 th century B.F. Skinner – his ideas on Operant Conditioning largely contributed this perspective. Developed as a reaction to the study of mental phenomena by psychoanalytic psychologists, gestalt psychologists, and others. Mid 20 th century George Miller – provided two ideas that are fundamental to this perspective: 1. short-term memory can only hold 5-9 chunks of meaningful information; 2. The human mind functions like a computer – takes in information, processes it, stores and later locates it, and generates responses to it. Developed as a reaction to behaviorism. Later 20 th century (Although ideas of constructivism have existed prior to the 20 th century — Dewey, Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky) Represents a collection of theories including - generative learning, discovery learning, and situated learning. Ideas of constructivism come from cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and anthropology. Definition Learning occurs when new behaviors or changes are acquired as the result of an individual’s response to stimuli. Learning is a change in knowledge stored in long-term memory schemas. Learning is the process where individuals construct new ideas or concepts based on prior knowledge and/or experience. Principles The influence of the external environment contributes to the shaping of the individual's behavior. The environment presents an antecedent that prompts a behavior. Whether the behavior occurs again is dependent on the consequence that follows it. Governed by internal process rather than by external circumstance (behaviorism). Process of selecting information (Attention), translating information (Encoding), and recalling that information when appropriate (Retrieval). Individuals construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems, usually in collaboration with others. Learning as a change in meaning constructed from experience. Individual interpretation of experience vs. objective representation (information processing perspective) Applications for Instruction 1. State objectives and break them down into steps 2. Provide hints or cues that guide students to desired behavior. 3. Use consequences to reinforce the desired behavior. 1. Organize new information. 2. Link new information to existing knowledge. 3. Use techniques to guide and support students' Attention, Encoding, and Retrieval process. 1. Pose "good" problems - realistically complex and personally meaningful. 2. Create group learning activities. 3. Model and guide the knowledge construction process. Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005 Modeled after chart created by Leilani Carbonell (2004). Instructional development timeline, learning theory. Retrieved from http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/learningtheory.htmlhttp://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/learningtheory.html Part of the My-eCoach program.

38. Primary Source: Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning,Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. Knowledge Dimension Cognitive Process Dimension RememberUnderstandApplyAnalyzeEvaluateCreate Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge Meta-Cognitive Knowledge KNOWLEDGE COMPREHENSION APPLICATION ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS EVALUATION Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) and Krathwohl’s Revision (2001)Bloom’s Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005 ©

39. Parallel Distributed Processing: also referred to as Neural Networking or Connectionism McClelland, J. L. and Rumelhart, D. E. (1988). Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: MIT Press Components of this “computational” learning/memory theory: (a) processing units, (b) connections -- each unit can be connected to any other unit via a link which has a “weighting” or “strength” (c) the weighting can be either excitatory or inhibitory (d) activation rules, (e) internal inputs (f) external inputs (g) unit processing output. Information isn’t input into memory in a step-by-step manner: consolidated first in sensory memory, then short-term, and then long-term memory. Rather, information is distributed to all parts of the networked memory system at once. Connections Input LayerOutput Layer Hidden Layers Input Links to neuron Output links from neuron Neuron Neural (Memory) Network Input links to neural (memory) network Output links from neural (memory) network Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

40. Gordon Vessels ©

41. Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005

42. Youth use the skills learned in parts of their lives Youth Connect the discussion to the larger world Youth do before being shown how Youth relate the experience to the learning objectives (life skills and/or subject matter) Youth describe results of the experience and their reactions Do ApplyReflect 1 Experience the activity: Perform it, do it 2 Share results, reactions, and observations publicly 5 Apply what was learned to a similar or different situation, practice 3 Process discussing, looking at the experience, analyzing, reflecting 4 Generalize to connect the experience to real world examples More ActiveMore Reflective More Concrete More Abstract The Experiential Learning Cycle After John Dewey and David Kolb Concrete Experience Reflective Observation Abstract Generalization Active Experimentation Coordinated Action Joint Action Shared Meaning Public Reflection More Active More Reflective More Concrete More Abstract The Group Team Learning Cycle Experiential Learning Theory: Rogers, Dewey, Kolb Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005