1. 2015/5/21 Prof. Frederick Hok-ming CHEUNG The Triumph of Confucianism in Han China, & “ The Promotion of Confucianism by Emperor Wu, r.140-87 B.C. ”

2. The triumph of Confucianism was a slow process, continuing over the whole Han period, and the Confucianism that won out was a peculiar synthesis of ancient philosophy and current superstition & omens, (& definitely not the pure, ethical teachings of Confucius).

3. According to Hsiao Kung-Chuan (in A History of Chinese Political Thought), Han Confucianism was an eclectic school mixed with Legalist tradition and certain ancient philosophy, such as the Naturalist School of yin-yang wu-hsing (yin-yang & five elements). But for all the eclecticism of Han thought, scholars seemed to have identified themselves with the Confucian tradition. This may have been because Confucianism was specifically a philosophy for bureaucrats and educated men.

4. It was not so much that Confucian philosophy won over Han thinkers; but rather, that Han scholars gradually adopted Confucianism as their ideal prototype. Two so-call Confucian scholars who rose to considerable influence under Emperor Wu were Kung-sun Hung and Tung Chung-shu. Both men were famous for their ability to interpret omens and for their analysis of the Spring and Autumn Annals.

5. Tung Chung-shu ’ s Ch ’ un Ch ’ iu fan lu (Luxuriant Dew of the Spring &Autumn Annals) is full of pseudo-scientific reasoning about the relationship between the Five elements and historic occurrences. The Han Confucians stressed that land, though won by horseback, could only be governed by the writing bush, i.e., with the assistance of educated scholars. The Han emperors needed the efficient civil administrators. Thus, the Han Confucians became the scholar-officials supporting (rather than opposing) the Han State.

6. Thus, the Han Confucianism that seemed to have appealed to Emperor Wu, in addition to its Legalist complexion, was also a complicated sort of cosmology and omen. In 135 B.C., Emperor Wu set up Erudites (po- shih) of the Five Classics which were considered as works of the Confucian tradition. Indeed, it was under Emperor Wu of Han that the court scholars became definitely identified with Confucianism.

7. In 124 B.C., Emperor Wu (at the suggestion of both Tung and Kung-sun) established the Imperial University, which was destined to advance Han Confucianism. The setting up of a government university for training officials was used for the first time by the central administration. From Emperor Wu ’ s time on, a large portion of the Han bureaucracy was produced through a Han Confucian education at government expense.

8. Although Han Confucianism was a mixture of ideas, the ethical concepts of Classical Confucianism gradually reasserted themselves over the syncretic beliefs. Soon, Han Confucians stressed also moral virtue, such as loyalty to the ruler and paternal benevolence toward the subjects (in addition to omens and cosmology).

9. Indeed, the reign of Emperor Wu of Han marked both the entrenchment of Han Confucianism and also the actual reintroduction of Legalist practices into the imperial government (together with yin-yang wu-hsing, and other omens & cosmology, etc.).

10. To conclude, Emperor Wu ’ s promotion of “ Confucianism ” and his related reforms help consolidate the Han Dynasty and greatly enhance the prestige of the Han Empire.