1. Infancy: Social and Emotional Development
CHAPTER 7
Infancy: Social and Emotional Development
Title Page. The next 3 chapters ( 5-6-7) all cover aspects of Infant Development

2. Learning Outcomes
LO1 Describe the development of attachment in infants.
LO2 Discuss social deprivation, neglect, and other factors that influence attachment.
LO3 Discuss the effects of day care on attachment.
LO4 Examine the emotional development of infants.
LO5 Examine the personality of infants.
Over view of topics in this chapter. Correlate to Learning Outcomes in text
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3. TRUTH OR FICTION?
T-F Autistic children may respond to people as though they were pieces of furniture.
T-F Children placed in daycare are more aggressive than children who are cared for in the home.
T-F Fear of strangers is abnormal among infants.
T-F All children are “born” with the same temperament. Treatment by caregivers determines whether they are difficult or easygoing.
T-F Girls prefer dolls and toy animals, and boys prefer toy trucks and sports equipment only after they have become aware of the gender roles assigned to them by society.
Pre-Quiz: Good to open class discussion of topics. Answer are placed throughout PowerPoint as topics are encountered.
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4. LO1 Attachment: Bonds That Endure
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5. Attachment: Bonds That Endure
Attachment defined:
An enduring emotional bond between one animal or person and another (Ainsworth)
Attachment is essential to survival of the infant (Bowlby).
Most people refer to it as “affection or love”
Patterns of Attachment
Separation Anxiety
Infants try to maintain contact with caregivers they are attached to by:
Engaging in eye contact; pulling and tugging at them; asking to be picked up, etc.
Separation results in:
Thrashing, fussing, crying, screech, whining, etc.

6. Attachment: Bonds That Endure
Patterns of Attachment, con’t.
Secure Attachment
Most infants in U.S. are securely attached.
The Strange-Situation Method is a way to measure an infant’s attachment by being exposed to a series of separations and reunions with the caregiver (usually mother) and a stranger (confederate of researchers).
Secure Infants will:
Mildly protest when mother leaves
Seek interaction with her upon reunion
And are easily comforted
Secure Infants and Toddlers are:
Happier, more social, more cooperative
By age 5-6, get along better with peers and are better adjusted in school than insecure children

7. Figure 7.1 – The Strange Situation

8. Attachment: Bonds That Endure
Patterns of Attachment, con’t.
Two major types of Insecurity:
Avoidant Attachment
Least distressed by mother leaving; continue to play without fussing; ignore mother when she returns
Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment
Most emotional at separation
Show severe signs of distress when mother leaves
Ambivalence at her return; alternately clinging and pushing her away
Additional category
Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment
Show contradictory behaviors; seem dazed, confused, disoriented
Results of insecure attachment
Insecure attachment at age 1 predicts psychological disorders at age 17

9. Establishing Attachment
Attachment is related to quality of care.
Parents of secure infants
Are more affectionate, cooperative, and predictable
Respond with more sensitivity to infant’s needs
Intergenerational transmission of attachment shows
If mother was a secure infant, the more likely her children will be also.
Siblings of same sex are more likely to form similar attachments to mother.
Security patterns are related to infant temperaments.
Mothers of “difficult” children are less responsive and security patterns of child may be affected.
Involvement of Fathers
Fathers in developed nations are becoming more involved in child care but mothers still engage in more
Fathers engage in more “play” activity than “care” activity
Father’s play is more physical; mother’s play is toward more cognitive activity, like games

10. Stages of Attachment Indiscriminate Attachment
No particular preferences for a familiar caregiver
Most infants have multiple attachments
Three Phases of Attachment
Initial-preattachment
B-3 months: indiscriminate attachment
Attachment-in-the-making
3-4 months: a preference for familiar caregiver emerges
Clear-cut-attachment
6-7 months: intensified dependence on primary caregiver, usually mother

11. Figure 7.2 – Development of Attachment

12. Theories of Attachment
Cognitive View
Behavioral View
Psychoanalytic Views
Caregiver as a Source of Contact Comfort
Ethological View
There are several theories of the development of attachment: this is an overview of those theories, each will be addressed individually on subsequent slides

13. Theories of Attachment
Cognitive View
Suggests infant must develop concept of object permanence before specific attachment is possible
Infants tend to develop specific attachments at about 6-7 months.
Basic object permanence develops somewhat earlier (2-6 months).
Behavioral View
Attachment behaviors are due to conditioning.
Caregivers attend to infant’s needs.
Infant associates caregiver with gratification of needs.
Caregiver then is a conditioned reinforcer.
There are several theories of the development of attachment: this is an overview of those theories, each will be addressed individually on subsequent slides

14. Theories of Attachment
Psychoanalytic Views
The caregiver (usually mother) becomes a love object that forms the basis for all later attachments.
Freud
Infant becomes emotionally attached to mother during the oral stage since she is the primary source of food and sucking.
Erickson
First year is critical for developing sense of trust in mother, thus fostering attachment.
Mother’s general sensitivity, not just meeting oral needs, fosters attachment.
Caregiver as a Source of Contact Comfort
Harlow experiments (Harlow & Harlow 1966)
Conducted classic experiments with baby monkeys
Demonstrated feeding was not critical to attachment
If generalized to humans, the need for contact comfort is as basic as need for food.

15. Figure 7.3 – Contact Comfort

16. Theories of Attachment
Ethological View
Attachment is instinctive.
In some nonhuman animal species, attachment occurs during a critical period, also known as imprinting.
i.e, waterfowl become attached to the first moving object they encounter after hatching
Similarity: In humans by 2-3 months of age
Infants begin to elicit social smiles.
Helping to ensure survival by garnering affection of caregiver
Differences:
Caregiving in humans is largely learned and not innate.
If a critical period of attachment in humans exists, it would extend to months and years.

17. LO2 When Attachment Fails
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18. When Attachment Fails Social Deprivation Experiments with Monkeys
Total solitary confinement in first 6 months caused:
Cowering; rocking behaviors; lack of self-dense when threatened
Females that later bore offspring ignored or abused them
However, if placed with younger they eventually began to play and even expanded social contacts to older peers

19. When Attachment Fails Social Deprivation Studies with Children
Even if material needs are met, but no social stimulation is experienced, children exhibit problems in all areas of development.
Children isolated in institutions receiving no contact except to feed and change diapers (bottles propped in cribs) display similar effects that monkeys experience.
None were speaking by months of age.
Deficiencies in sensory stimulation and social interactions once children are of the age to develop specific attachments leads to attachment disorders.
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20. When Attachment Fails Social Deprivation, con’t.
The Capacity to Recover
Infants have powerful capacities to recover from deprivation.
If placed in socially enriched environments, most will attain their physical equivalencies.
There is also evidence that points to their ability to recover from social deprivation if given social care and opportunities.

21. Child Abuse and Neglect
Statistics
3 million American children are neglected or abused ever year.
50-60% of cases go unreported (incidence is actually higher).
By age of 2 years:
90% of parents have engaged in sort of psychological or emotional abuse
55% have slapped or spanked child
31% have pushed, grabbed, or shoved
150,000 of the 3 million reported cases involved sexual abuse
25% girls; 18% boys

22. Child Abuse and Neglect
Effects
Abused children show higher incidence of person, social, and psychological disorders
Less attached to parents
Less intimate with peers
More aggressive, angry, and noncompliant
Have lower self-esteem
Perform poorly in school
Have higher risk for delinquency, risky sexual behaviors, and substance abuse
In adulthood are more likely to act aggressively toward partners

23. Child Abuse and Neglect
Causes
Contributing factors include:
Stress
Divorce; job loss; moving; birth of new baby
A baby that is difficult to soothe and cries excessively
Family History
At lease on parent’s family of origin lacked adequate coping skills
Inadequate Coping and Child-Rearing Skills
Unrealistic Expectations of Child
Children who are disobedient, inappropriate, or unresponsive are at greater risk.
Substance Abuse

24. Child Abuse and Neglect
What to do
Mandatory Reporting
Many states require helping professionals to report any suspicion of child abuse.
Some states require anyone to report.
Techniques for Prevention
Strengthening parenting skills among the general population
Targeting high risk groups
Poor, single, teen mothers
Presenting information about abuse and providing support to families
Providing hot-lines to call for help
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25. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
These disorders are characterized by impairment in communication skills, social interaction, and repetitive, stereotyped behaviors.
They tend to become evident by age 3 and sometimes before first year.
Recent CDC study identified 1 in every 152 children as having an ASD.
Types of ASD:
Asperger’s Disorder
Rett’s Disorder
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder
Autism

26. Figure 7.1 – Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs)
Source: Adapted from Strock (2004).

27. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Types of ASD
Asperger’s Disorder
Displays social deficits and stereotypical behaviors but without significant cognitive or language delays
Rett’s Disorder
Displays range of physical, behavioral, motor, and cognitive abnormalities that begin a few months after normal development
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder
Displays abnormal functioning and loss of previously acquired skills; onset about 2 years after normal development

28. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Types of ASD, con’t.
Autism: major form of ASD; 4-5 times more common in boys
Symptoms:
No interest in social interaction; avoid eye contact
Weak or absent attachment to others
Shun affection, such as hugging, cuddling, and kissing
Communication problems
Speech lags: may show mutism (refusal to speak), echolalia (word repetitions), and pronoun reversal (referring to self as “you, etc.”
About half use language by mid-childhood but not well
Intolerance of change; ritualistic/stereotypical behaviors
“Preservation of Sameness”
Deficits: In peer play, imaginative play, imitation, emotional expressiveness
Self mutilation, head banging, face slapping, biting, pulling out hair
Answer to T-F? #1 - Autistic children may respond to people as though they were pieces of furniture. TRUE

29. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Causes
Parental Care
Research shows NO CORRELATION between development of Autism and deficiencies in child rearing.
Genetic
Kinship studies show
Concordance (agreement) rates in MZ (identical) twins at 60%; DZ (fraternal) twins at 10%
Neurological
Abnormal brain wave patterns are evident
Brain has abnormal sensitivity to neurotransmitters
Serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine
Unusual activity in motor region of cerebral cortex; less in other areas

30. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Treatment
Behavior Modifications
Most current treatments are in this category.
Used to help develop new behaviors using operant conditioning (introducing reinforcers for desired behaviors).
Can increase child’s ability to attend to others and play with other children
Use of electric shock therapy is used in cases of self-mutilation.
Raises serious moral, ethical, and legal concerns
But advocates argue that self-mutilation places child at greater risk

31. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Treatment, con’t.
Biological approaches
New biological treatments are currently under study.
Drugs that enhance serotonin activity help prevent:
Self-injury; aggressive outbursts; depression; anxiety; repetitive behaviors
Drugs used to treat schizophrenia (major tranquilizers) help with:
Stereotyped behaviors, hyperactivity, and self-injury
Prognosis
Autistic behavior generally continues into adulthood to one degree or another.
However, some do overcome it’s limitations and go on to function independently and even achieve college degrees.

32. LO3 Day Care
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33. Daycare Statistics Pros
10 million (20%) of American children under age 5 are in daycare centers.
Pros
Infants in both home-care and daycare are equally securely attached to caregivers.
Some studies show daycare leads to higher developmental levels and more peer oriented play.
Children in high quality daycare are more likely to share toys, are more independent, self-confident, outgoing, affectionate, and are more helpful and cooperative with peers and adults.
Participation in daycare is also linked to higher academic performance in elementary school.

34. Daycare, con’t Quality of daycare defined by: Cons
“Richness” of learning environment
Availability of toys, books, etc.
High ratio of caregivers to children
High amount of individual attention
Cons
Children in daycare may be more aggressive and less cooperative.
The more time spent away from mothers, the more likely they are to be rated as defiant, aggressive, and disobedient in kindergarten.
More likely to interrupt class, tease, and bully when in grade school
But within “normal” limits
Quality of daycare center made no difference
Persistent through 6th grade
Answer to T-F? # 2 - Children placed in day care are more aggressive than children who are cared for in the home. TRUE - although their level of aggression is generally not severe.

35. Daycare, con’t Conclusions
Although differences in disruptive behavior between daycare and home-care children are statistically significant (unlikely due to chance), they are small.
Reality check: millions of parents are in the workforce and have no alternative
Even choice of where to place child is governed by financial and geographic circumstances.
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36. LO4 Emotional Development
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37. Emotional Development
Emotions Defined:
A state of feeling that includes:
Physical responses: rapid heart rate; tense muscles
Situational components: pos/neg responses depends on who is involved and what is happening
Cognitions: our own perspective and ideas
Unclear how many emotions babies have
They cannot tell us how they are feeling.
We must rely on observation of their behaviors, including facial expressions.

38. Emotional Development
Facial expressions
Universally recognized throughout world
Have consistent emotional interpretation
2 basic states of infant emotional arousal
Positive attraction
2-3 months social smiling is expressed
3-5 months laughing out loud
Withdrawal from aversive stimulation
In Sum:
Infants show only a few emotions during first few months.
Emotional development is linked to cognitive and social experience.
No clear agreement of when specific emotions are first present or whether any are present at birth.

39. Emotional Development
Emotional Development and Patterns of Attachment
Securely attached children express less anger when experiencing separation anxiety.
Negative emotions in insecurely attached children rise when separated.
Avoidant children grow fearful.
Resistant children become less happy.
Fear of Strangers
a.k.a stranger anxiety is normal
Appears about 6-9 months
Declines about 9-12 months
Child will show less fear if mother is present or in familiar settings.
Answer to T-F? #3 - Fear of strangers is abnormal among infants. TURE: Actually the majority of infants are likely to develop fear of strangers at around 6-9 months of age.

40. Emotional Development
Social Referencing : What Should I Do Now?
Seeking out another person’s perception of a situation to help us form our own view of it
Infants engage in social referencing as early as 6 months.
Use facial expressions and tone of voice as cues
Requires 3 components:
Looking at someone else (usually an elder)
Associating the other’s response with the situation
Regulating their own response to match the elder

41. Emotional Development
Emotional Regulation: Keeping on an Even Keel
Ways in which young children control their own emotions (learning to self-regulate emotions)
Infants may look away from aversive event or suck their thumb.
Caregivers help infants learn self-regulation by engaging in a two-way communication system.
Children of secure mothers are more likely to self-regulate in a positive manner.
Adolescents who were secure infants are better able to self-regulate and interact cooperatively in social situations.

42. LO5 Personality Development
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43. Personality Development
The Self-Concept
Temperament: Easy, Difficult, or Slow to Warm Up?
Sex Differences
Will discuss three major facets of Personality Development - each addressed separately in subsequent slides
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44. Personality Development
The Self-Concept
The understanding that we are separate and distinct from the world outside, or becoming aware of ourselves
Development of the Self-Concept
Around 18 months will recognize dot of rouge on nose when viewing self in a mirror
By 2 years most can identify themselves in photos and begin to use “I” or own name
Self-awareness impacts social and emotional development
Knowledge of self permits and promotes development of sharing and cooperative behaviors
Self-awareness also facilitates development of “self-conscious” emotions:
Embarrassment, envy, empathy, pride, guilt, and shame

45. Personality Development
The Self-Concept, con’t.
Psychoanalytic Views of Self-Concept
5 months - 3 years: self-concept emerges through a process of separation-individuation
Separation: child’s growing perception that mother is separate from self
Individuation: child’s increasing sense of independence and autonomy
Increasing autonomy usually accompanied by refusals to comply with requests of caregivers
Younger toddlers more likely to ignore or defy.
Older toddlers and preschoolers more likely to make excuses or negotiate.

46. Personality Development
Temperament:
Defined:
A stable way of reacting and adapting to the world that is present early life
Many researchers believe it involves a strong genetic component.
It includes various aspects of behavior:
Activity level: smiling and laughter; regularity in eating and sleep habits; approach or withdrawal; adaptability to new situations; intensity of responsiveness; general cheerfulness or unpleasantness; distractibility or persistence; soothability

47. Personality Development
Temperament: con’t.
Types of Temperament:
Easy = 40%
Regular sleep and feeding habits; adapts to new people and situations easily; generally cheerful
Difficult = 10%
Irregular sleep and feeding habits; slow to accept new people and situations; cries and has temper tantrums
Slow to Warm up = 15%
Falls somewhere between Easy and Difficult
Mixture of all types = 35%
Stability of Temperament
Moderate consistency is observed over life span.
Difficult children at greater risk for developing psychological disorder later in life.
Answer to T-F? # 4 - All children are “born” with the same temperament. Treatment by caregivers determines whether they are difficult or easygoing. FALSE - it appears that genetic factors contribute to a child’s temperament. There is also at least moderate consistency in the development of temperament from infancy onward.

48. Table 7.2 – Types of Temperament
This is Table 7.2 on p. 129 of CDEV
Sources: Chess & Thomas (1991) and Thomas & Chess (1989).

49. Personality Development
Temperament: con’t.
Goodness of Fit: The Role of the Environment
Refers to whether the interaction between child and caregiver/s is positive or negative
An initial predisposition to a certain temperament can be strengthened or weakened by parents reaction to child.
A “good fit” is one in which parents are able to modify child behavior in a positive direction while maintaining a positive attitude for both.
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50. Personality Development
Sex Differences
All cultures distinguish between females and males and have expectations about behaviors of each.
A child’s sex is a key factor in society’s efforts to shape its personality and behavior.
Girls and Boys are similar in social behaviors until about months.
Boy behaviors
9-18 mos: prefer playing with toy trucks, tools, and sports equipment
Girls behaviors
Advance faster in motor development
12-18 mos: prefer playing with dolls, toy animals, etc.
By 24 months, both boys and girls have clear understanding of what is considerate appropriate behavior for their sex.
Answer to T-F? # 5 - Girls prefer dolls and toy animals, and boys prefer toy trucks and sports equipment only after they have become aware of the gender roles assigned to them by society. FALSE - It appears girls and boys may show a preference for gender stereotypical toys before they have been socialized and possible before they understand their own sex.

51. Personality Development
Adults’ Behavior toward Infants
Adults interact differently with boys and girls.
Both Parents
More likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play with boys (especially fathers)
Talk more to daughters than sons
Smile more at daughters and express emotions more
Dress girls in more delicate fabrics and lighter colors
Dress boys in stronger fabrics and colors
Decorate girls rooms with flowers and pink colors
Decorate boys rooms with with animal themes and blue colors
Encourage child to engage in play with “sex appropriate” toys; fathers especially discourage sons playing with “girl” toys and vice versa