1. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 1 Chapter 13 Motivation at Work Prepared by Joseph Mosca Monmouth University

2. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 2 Learning Objectives 1.Describe the basic model of performance. 2.Discuss motivation and human needs. 3.Identify the basic process models of motivation and describe an integrative model of motivation. 4.Describe two other important theories of motivation.

3. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 3 What Is Motivation? Motivation determines how a person will exert his or her effort. It represents the forces operating on the person to exert effort, as well as the direction in which the effort will be exerted.

4. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 4 Motivation and Needs Need–based theories focus on what motivates a person, rather than on how that motivation occurs. Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow specifies five levels of needs that are capable of motivating behavior: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self- actualization.

5. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 5 Motivation and Needs Theories ERG theory : Alderfer identifies three rather than two levels of needs; it allows for someone to regress from a higher-level need to a lower-level need. Dual factor theory: Herzberg identifies motivators and hygiene factors as two sets of conditions at work that can satisfy needs.

6. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 6 Process Theories Process theories: motivation theories that focus on how a person becomes motivated and what they are motivated to do, rather than on what motivates them. Reinforcement theory: Skinner proposed that all behavior is a function if its consequences.

7. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 7 Reinforcement Theories Extinction refers to the situation where a behavior is followed by no consequences and so it is not repeated. Punishment refers to a situation where a behavior is followed by negative consequences and so it is not repeated.

8. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 8 Additional Theories Partial reinforcement: rewarding a behavior only part of the time Interval schedules: when behavior is reinforced as a function of the passage of time Ratio schedules: when behavior is reinforced as a function of how many times the function occurs

9. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 9 Interval Schedules Fixed Interval schedules: schedules where the amount of time that must pass before a reward is given is constant over time Variable interval schedules: schedules where the amount of time that must pass before a reward is given can change from one reward period to another

10. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 10 Ratio Schedules Fixed ratio schedules: schedules where the number of times a behavior must occur before it is rewarded remains constant over time Variable ratio schedules: ratio schedules where the number of times a behavior must occur before it is rewarded changes over time.

11. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 11 Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory or VIE theory is a fairly complex process theory of motivation that casts the employee in the role of decision maker. Basically, an employee decides whether or not to exert effort depending on the outcomes he or she anticipates receiving for those efforts, based on calculations made concerning expectations, instrumentalities, valences, and the links among these three components.

12. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 12 The Link Between Effort and Performance Effort-to-performance expectancy is the person’s perception of the probability that an increase in effort will result in an increase in performance. Performance-to-outcomes expectancy is the person’s perception of the probability that improved performance will lead to certain outcomes. Valence is the attractiveness or unattractiveness an outcome has for a person

13. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 13 Equity Theory Equity theory is concerned with a person’s perceived inputs to a (work) setting and the outcomes they receive from that setting. The theory suggests that everyone calculates the ratio of inputs to outcomes, almost the way one would consider a return on any investment.

14. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 14 The Goal Theory Goal theory is based on the premise that people with goals work harder than people without goals. Beyond that, the theory suggests that not all goals are created equal, and that goals which are difficult and yet specific and concrete will motivate employees best.

15. Copyright © 2012 by Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.13- 15 Agency Theory Agency theory is concerned with the diverse interests and goals held by the organization’s stakeholders, including its employees and managers, and the methods through which the organization’s reward system can be used to align these diverse interests and goals.