1. Second language learning

2. The behaviorist view
L2 learning consists above all in overcoming the differences between L1 and L2.
Positive transfer: L1 habits are helpful to acquiring L2
(e.g. understanding similar words such as pilot, hamburger)
Negative transfer: L1 habits hinder the acquiring L2, so called interference
(e.g. I have 15 years. She is living here for two months.)
Importance of habit formation (drill and repetitive activities) and imitation.

3. Stephen Krashen: Monitor Model
one of the most influential and widely discussed models of second language learning in recent years
also called the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis or the Input Hypothesis
describes five interrelated hypotheses

4. The acquisition/learning distinction
Adults have two independent but interrelated systems for gaining ability in another language: acquisition and learning.
• Acquisition: intuitive and takes place subconsciously in situations where speakers communicate naturally; it is similar to the process used by children to “pick up” language; speakers are more concerned with the use of language to convey meaning than with correct usage.
• Learning: takes place consciously; learners focus on form, figure out rules and are generally aware of their own process; it is helped greatly by error correction and presentation of explicit rules

5. The monitor hypothesis
the monitor - a “device” for checking our language output
adults should strive for optimal monitor use so that their conscious knowledge of language does not interfere with communication

6. The input hypothesis
• we acquire language only when we are exposed to comprehensible input
• comprehensible input - language that contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level of competence
• the language learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress
• speaking fluency cannot be taught directly, but rather emerges naturally over time

7. The affective filter hypothesis
• comprehensible input can have its effect only when affective conditions are optimal: the acquirer is motivated, has self-confidence, good self-image and a low anxiety level
• if the affective filter is high, comprehensible input cannot get in

8. Task: teachers’ use of L1 and L2
To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
If the teacher is worried about the class understanding his instructions or explanation, he can ask a student to translate what he has said to others.
Instructions should be given in both languages – L2 first.
Students should be allowed to ask the teacher in L2 if they may say something in their own language. All other use of L1 is prohibited.
L1 should be used as little as possible.

9. Commentary
If the teacher is worried about the class understanding his instructions or explanation, he can ask a student to translate what he has said to others.
→ good practice in translation, not always the same pupils
→ teachers should try to find alternative ways of making themselves clear, learners do not always understand after first hearing
→ encourage guessing of meaning
Instructions should be given in both languages – L2 first.
→ may help learners get used to instructions in L1 (a useful temporary ‘crutch’)
→ if done repeatedly – pupils may ‘switch off’

10. Commentary
Students should be allowed to ask the teacher in L2 if they may say something in their own language. All other use of L1 is prohibited.
→ could work well with older learners, little children may feel stressed
L1 should be used as little as possible.
→ generally true: teachers tend to start with high ambitions (only L2), end up speaking too much L1
→ L1 should be used:
when there is an obvious breakdown in communication
for complicated instructions (e.g. for a new game)
for discussing grammar