1. Introduction
Chapter 1
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2. Chapter Outline
Discuss the distinctive features of a life-span perspective on development
Identify the most important processes, periods, and issues in development
Describe the main theories of human development
Explain how research on life-span development is conducted
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3. The Life-Span Perspective
The importance of studying life-span development
Characteristics of the life-span perspective
Some contemporary concerns
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4. The Importance of Studying Life-span Development
Prepares us to take responsibility for children
Gives us insight about our own lives
Gives us knowledge about what our lives will be like as we age
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5. Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
Pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span
Development
Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
Is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together
Life-span perspective
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6. Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
Development:
Is contextual
Is lifelong
Is multidimensional
Is multidirectional
Is plastic
Is multidisciplinary
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7. Types of Contextual Influences
Normative age-graded influences: Similar for individuals in a particular age group
Normative history-graded influences: Common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances
Nonnormative life events: Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual’s life
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8. The Life-Span Perspective
Contemporary concerns
Health and well-being
Parenting and education
Sociocultural contexts and diversity
Culture: Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation
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9. The Life-Span Perspective
Cross-cultural studies: Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures
Ethnicity: Based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language
Socioeconomic status: Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
Gender: Characteristics of people as males or females
Social policy: National government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens
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10. The Nature of Development
Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
Periods of development
The significance of age
Developmental issues
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11. Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
Changes in an individual’s physical nature
Biological processes
Changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language
Cognitive processes
Changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality
Socioemotional processes
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12. Periods of Development
Four ages
First age - Childhood and adolescence
Second age - Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59
Third age - Approximately 60 to 79 years of age
Fourth age - Approximately 80 years and older
Development in one period is connected to development in another period
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13. Figure 1.8 - Processes and Periods of Development
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14. Significance of Age
A full evaluation of age requires consideration of chronological, biological, psychological, and social age
Chronological age
Number of years that have elapsed since birth
Biological age
Age in terms of biological health
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15. Significance of Age Psychological age Social age
An individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age
Social age
Connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt
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16. Developmental Issues
Nature-nurture issue: Debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture
Nature - Organism’s biological inheritance
Nurture - Environmental experiences
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17. Developmental Issues Stability-change issue
Debate about:
Whether we become older renditions of our early experience
Whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development
Continuity-discontinuity issue: Debate about the extent to which development involves
Gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages
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18. Theories of Development
Scientific method: An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information
Conceptualize the problem
Collect data
Draw conclusions
Revise research conclusions and theory
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19. Theories of Development
Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and facilitate predictions
Hypotheses: Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy
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20. Psychoanalytic Theories
Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion
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21. Theories of Development
Psychoanalytic theories
Cognitive theories
Behavioral and social cognitive theories
Ethological theory
Ecological theory
An eclectic theoretical orientation
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22. Figure 1.11 - Freudian Stages
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23. Psychoanalytic Theories
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
Eight stages of development
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Industry versus inferiority
Identity versus identity confusion
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Integrity versus despair
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24. Psychoanalytic Theories
Evaluation
Emphasis on:
A developmental framework
Family relationships
Unconscious aspects of the mind
Criticisms
Lack of scientific support
Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings
An image of people that is too negative
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25. Figure 1.13 - Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
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26. Cognitive Theories
Vygotsky’s theory: Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
Information-processing theory: Emphasizes that individuals:
Manipulate information
Monitor it
Strategize about it
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27. Cognitive Theories Evaluation Positive view of development
Emphasis on the active construction of understanding
Criticisms
Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages
Little attention to individual variations
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28. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Skinner’s operant conditioning
Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments
Bandura’s social cognitive theory
Emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development
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29. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Evaluation
Emphasis on scientific research and environmental determinants of behavior
Criticisms
Little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s view
Inadequate attention paid to developmental changes
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30. Ethological Theory
Ethology: Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods
Konrad Lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence
John Bowlby - Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span
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31. Figure 1.15 - Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development
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32. Five Environmental Systems Bronfenbrenner’s Model
Microsystem - Setting in which the individual lives
Mesosystem - Relations between microsystems or connections between contexts
Exosystem - Links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context
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33. Five Environmental Systems Bronfenbrenner’s Model
Macrosystem - Culture in which individuals live
Chronosystem - Patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course and sociohistorical circumstances
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34. Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
Does not follow any one theoretical approach
Selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it
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35. Research in Life-Span Development
Methods for collecting data
Research designs
Time span of research
Conducting ethical research
Minimizing bias
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36. Methods for Collecting Data
Observation
Laboratory: Controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the real world are removed
Naturalistic observation: Studies that involve observing behavior in real-world settings
Survey and interview
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37. Methods for Collecting Data
Standardized test: Uniform procedures for administration and scoring
Case study: In-depth look at a single individual
Physiological measures
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38. Research Designs
Descriptive research: Designed to observe and record behavior
Correlational research: Describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
Correlation coefficient: A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables
Ranges from to +1.00
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39. Research Designs Experimental research
Experiment: One or more of the factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant
Independent and dependent variables
Experimental and control groups
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40. Time Span of Research
Cross-sectional approach: Individuals of different ages are compared at one time
Longitudinal approach: Same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more
Cohort effects: Due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age
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41. Conducting Ethical Research
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception
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42. Minimizing Bias Gender bias Cultural and ethnic bias
Ethnic gloss: Using an ethnic label in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is
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