1. How Do We View Men and Women?
Chapter 12
Gender Development and Stereotypes

2. Module Objectives: What is the difference between sex and gender?
What are Gender differences?
What are Gender stereotypes?

3. Pat is active, independent, competitive, and aggressive
Pat is active, independent, competitive, and aggressive. Is Pat male or female?
Is Pat male or female? Most people will say male. Why? Although Pat is a common name for both males and females, the adjectives used to describe Pat are commonly associated with men rather than with women.

4. Most people assume Pat is male. Why
Most people assume Pat is male. Why? Although Pat is a common name for both males and females, the adjectives used to describe Pat are commonly associated with men rather than with women.

5. Test yourself…
On the following slide, identify which traits are masculine and which are feminine.

6. What Traits Characterize Males and Females?
More Characteristic of Males
More Characteristic of Females
1. Active
2. Considerate
3. Aggressive
4. Creative
5. Ambitious
6. Competitive
7. Emotional
8. Independent
9. Artistic
10. Displays leadership
11. Excitable
12. Empathic
13. Mechanical
14. Gentle
15. Outspoken
16 . Neat
17. Persistent
18. Understanding
Which are clearly feminine and which are clearly masculine? Although you may not agree with the peer consensus, can you anticipate how they have responded by indicating whether each trait listed is more characteristic of men or more characteristic of women.
As identified by college students:
Even numbered - female traits
Odd numbered - male traits
Is there a difference between what the men say and what the women say?

7. The same chart has been used to assess gender stereotypes among college students..
Did you choose the same traits as the consensus?
Even numbered - female traits Odd numbered - male traits
As identified by college students: Even numbered - female traits Odd numbered - male traits

8. Features Judged by College Students to Be Characteristically Male or Female
Independent
Emotional
Aggressive
Home-oriented
Not excitable
Kind
Skilled in business
Cries easily
Mechanical aptitude
Creative
Outspoken
Considerate
Acts as a leader
Devotes self to others
Self-confident
Needs approval
Ambitious
Gentle
Not easily influenced
Aware of others’ feelings
Dominant
Excitable

9. Instrumental Traits (Roles) are traits associated with males
They describe individuals who act on the world and influence it
Expressive Traits (Roles) are traits associated with females
They describe emotional functioning and individuals who value interpersonal relationships
American men and women both believe that instrumental traits typically typify males whereas expressive traits typify females.
Instrumental:
As a traditional husband and father, a male would face the task of providing for the family and protecting it from harm. Thus, young boys are expected to become dominant, assertive, independent, and competitive.
Expressive:
Involves being kind, nurturant, cooperative, and sensitive to the needs of others. These traits would prepare girls to play the wife and mother roles, keeping the family functioning, and to raise children successfully.
Compared to other countries, American adults have more extreme stereotypes of men and women. What we as Americans believe about gender is based on our cultural beliefs -- they are not universally held.

10. Gender Stereotypes
Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males
All gender stereotypes refer to an image of what the typical member of a particular social category is like
The world is extremely complex. Every day we are confronted with thousands of different stimuli. The use of stereotypes is one way we simplify this complexity. If we simply assign a label (such as soft) to someone, we then have much less to consider when we think about the individual. Once the labels are assigned, they are remarkably different to abandon, even in the face of contradictory evidence.

11. Children’s Stereotypes of Boys and Girls
Boys are…
Girls are…
5-yrs-old
11-yrs-old
Strong 
Emotional
Aggressive
Gentle
Disorderly
Soft-hearted
Cruel
Affectionate
Coarse
Weak
Ambitious
Appreciative
Dominant
Excitable
Adventurous
Sophisticated
Independent
Fickle
Loud
Meek
Jolly
Submissive
Steady
Talkative
Confident
Frivolous
Deborah Best and her colleagues in 1977 studied children’s growing understanding of gender stereotypes. Children were asked if 16 stereotypically masculine and 16 stereotypically feminine traits were more typically of boys and girls. At age 5, boys and girls judged one-third of the traits the way adults would. By age 11, they judged 90 percent of the traits according to the adult stereotypes. This table shows the traits judged stereotypically at ages 5 and 11.

12. Why do we assume this is a girl?

13. Gender Stereotypes
Children understand gender stereotypes by the time they enter kindergarten
Their understanding grows throughout elementary-school years
They begin to understand that gender stereotypes do not always apply
Older children are more willing than younger children to ignore stereotypes when judging other children.

14. Children learn very young that we do not live in a gender-neutral society
By the age of 4, a child’s knowledge of gender-stereo-typed activities is extensive

15. Consider the reaction of one 6-year-old to a boy named George who likes to play with dolls:
Why do you think people tell George not to play with dolls?
Well, he should only play with things that boys play with. The things that he is playing with now is girls’ stuff
Can George play with Barbie dolls if he wants to?
No!
What should George do?
He should stop playing with girls’ dolls and start playing with G.I. Joe
Why can a boy play with G.I. Joe and not a Barbie doll?
Because if a boy is playing with a Barbie doll, then he’s just going to get people teasing him… and if he tries to play more, to get girls to like him, the girls won’t like him either
Between the ages of 3 and 7, gender-related issues are very important to children. This is the time when they are starting to firmly classify themselves as boys and girls…. They are starting to know that they will always be boys and/or girls. So, they may exaggerate gender-stereotypes so they can live up to their own self-images.

16. Between the ages of 3 and 7, gender-related issues are very important to children. This is the time when they are starting to firmly classify themselves as boys and girls…. They are starting to know that they will always be boys and/or girls.
So, they may exaggerate gender-stereotypes so they can live up to their own self-images.

17. As children develop they learn that gender stereotypes don’t always apply
Older children are more willing than younger children to ignore stereotypes when judging children

18. Is There Any Truth to Gender Stereotypes?

19. Physical Development As infants, boys are more active than girls
This difference increases during childhood
Girls tend to be healthier than boys
Female embryos are more likely than males to survive prenatal development
Infant boys are more prone to diseases and dysfunctions
Adolescent boys and young men are more likely to engage in unhealthy, risk-taking behaviors
Activity:
In a classroom, boys are more likely than girls to have a hard time sitting still.
On a playground, boys more often play vigorously and girls more often play quietly.
Boys are three times more likely than girls to be diagnosed with ADHD.
Male infants tend to be more active and fussier than female infants. Boys grimace more. Boys tend to have more disturbed sleep patterns than girls.
Adolescents:
More likely to drive recklessly, drink, and engage in risky sexual behavior
Health:
Estrogen strengthens the immune system, making the female more resistant. Female hormones also signal the liver to produce more “good” cholesterol which makes females blood vessels more elastic than males. Testosterone triggers the production of low-density lipprotein, which clogs blood vessels. Higher levels of stress hormones cause faster clotting in males, but also higher blood pressure than in females.

20. In a classroom, boys are more likely than girls to have a hard time sitting still. On a playground, boys more often play vigorously and girls more often play quietly.

21. Intellectual Ability
Females tend to have greater verbal ability than males
Girls read, write, and spell better than boys
More boys have reading and other language-related problems such as stuttering
Verbal ability includes:
Unscrambling words, speech production, and general measures of verbal ability
Why are girls more verbally talented than boys?
The left hemisphere of the brain (which is central to language) may mature more rapidly in girls than in boys. Experience also contributes. Reading is often stereotyped as an activity for girls so girls are more willing to read than boys. Girls are more willing to invest time and effort in mastering verbal skills like reading.
Boys are better at mental rotation. Why?
A recessive gene on the X chromosome may promote spatial ability. So, males only have to inherit the recessive gene from mom to express it. Females, have to get the recessive gene from both mom and dad to be able to express it.
The right hemisphere of the brain may be more specialized for spatial processing in males compared to females. This may be because boys mature more slowly than girls.
Boys are more likely to participate in activities that foster spatial skills, such as estimating the trajectory of an object moving through space (I.e., baseball), using two-dimensional plans to assemble an object (such as a scale model), or by playing video-games which involve visual-perceptual skills.

22. Males tend to have greater spatial ability than females
From childhood on, boys tend to have better mental rotation skill than girls
From adolescence on, boys are more accurate than girls on spatial tasks that involve relations between objects in space

23. Let’s Test Your Spatial Ability!
Try the following activities on your own.

24. Spatial Ability The items above test mental rotation.
The task is to determine which of the figures labeled A through E are rotated versions of the figure in the box on the left.
The answer: C and D

25. Did you get it?

26. Give them 3 minutes to do this.
27 cubes
15 cubes
18 cubes
19 cubes
40 cubes
10 cubes
22 cubes
13 cubes
20 cubes
50 cubes
The first row of cubes shows you how many cubes are contained in each pile. Figure out the number of cubes contained in each of the piles above.

27. 27 cubes 15 cubes 18 cubes 19 cubes 40 cubes 10 cubes 22 cubes
Give them 3 minutes to do this.
27 cubes
15 cubes
18 cubes
19 cubes
40 cubes
10 cubes
22 cubes
13 cubes
20 cubes
50 cubes

28. Intellectual Ability Continued…
On standardized math tests:
Initially, girls excel in math computation, but later boys excel in math problem solving
For grades in math courses:
Usually there is no difference between boys and girls, BUT, if there is a difference it usually favors girls
This gender difference remains even if boys and girls take the same number of math courses. This difference on math achievement tests is not restricted to the United States. Boys tend to score higher than girls in countries such as China, Brazil, Ireland and Israel.
Why are girls doing worse on achievement tests but getting better grades in the classroom?
One idea is that girls are more confident on classroom tests than on achievement tests. The achievement test questions are more novel than classroom test questions. Because they are not as confident… they don’t do as well. Boys are more confident in their math skills and like the challenge of novel problems. Math is also a stereotypic male pursuit so girls tend to lack confidence in their math skills.
The difference on standardized tests has been evaluated and tried to change. They evaluated 100,000 American 3, 7, and 11 year olds -- the same gender differences exist today as they first did in 1978!!!
Boys may be more successful in some areas of math because they more often have the spatial skills that promote understanding.

29. Think on Your Own…
Why are girls doing worse on achievement tests but getting better grades in the classroom? .

30. One idea is that girls are more confident on classroom tests than on achievement tests. The achievement test questions are more novel than classroom test questions. Because they are not as confident… they don’t do as well.
Boys are more confident in their math skills and like the challenge of novel problems. Math is also a stereotypic male pursuit so girls tend to lack confidence in their math skills

31. Personality and Social Behavior
Starting at age 2, boys are more physically and verbally aggressive than girls.
They are more likely to be physically aggressive toward other boys rather than toward girls
Starting at age 2, boys are more physically and verbally aggressive than females. They are 10-times more likely to be involved in antisocial behavior and violent crimes during adolescence. Girls display covert forms of aggression (snubbing others or undermining social status or relationships).
Biological link: ANDROGENS -- hormones secreted by the testes. Androgen does not lead to aggression directly. Androgens make it more likely that boys will be aggressive by making boys more excited or angry and by making boys stronger.
Societal link: Media presents us with aggressive male role models -- Jedi Knights to John Wayne -- these role models are rewarded for their aggressive behavior.
Parents are more likely to use physical punishment with sons than with daughters. Parents are more likely to be more tolerant of aggressive behavior in sons than in daughters. So… experience encourages boys rather than girls to express their aggression physically.
What is actually the case: both boys and girls are aggressive. BUT… the method of aggression is different between the sexes. In American children (African American and Euro American ) in grades 3 to 6, when they want to harm their peers, boys try to hurt them physically whereas girls try to damage relationships with peers. Relational aggression (typical of girls) is less visually obvious.

32. Boys and men are more aggressive in virtually all cultures and in nonhuman species

33. Why are boys more aggressive?
There is a Biological link to aggression in the hormone Androgens, which are secreted by the testes.
Androgen does not lead to aggression directly. Androgens make it more likely that boys will be aggressive by making boys more excited or angry and by making boys stronger.

34. Is there a Societal link?
Media presents us with aggressive male role models - Jedi Knights to John Wayne
These role models are rewarded for their aggressive behavior.
Parents are more likely to use physical punishment with sons than with daughters.

35. Parents are more likely to be more tolerant of aggressive behavior in sons than in daughters. So… experience encourages boys rather than girls to express their aggression physically.

36. Girls display covert forms of aggression snubbing others or undermining social status or relationships.

37. What is actually the case?
BOTH boys and girls are aggressive. BUT… the method of aggression is different between the sexes.
In American children (African American and Euro American ) in grades 3 to 6, when they want to harm their peers, boys try to hurt them physically whereas girls try to damage relationships with peers.
Relational aggression (typical of girls) is less visually obvious.

38. Personality and Social Behavior Continued…
Girls are better able at expressing their emotions and interpreting others’ emotions
Girls are more willing to admit to feelings, but boys and girls are equally able to feel what others are feeling
Why is there a gender difference?
Experience -- parents are more “feeling-oriented” with daughters than with sons. They are more likely to talk about their emotions with daughters than with sons. They are more likely to emphasize the importance of considering others’ feelings with their daughter than with their sons.

39. Personality and Social Behavior
Females are more easily influenced by others - more persuadable
Girls are more compliant than boys with the requests and demands of teachers, parents, and other authority figures.
Young girls are more likely to seek an adult’s help
Girls are more compliant than boys with the requests and demands of teachers, parents, and other authority figures. Girls use tact and polite suggestions whereas boys usually resort to demanding or controlling strategies (even though they are capable of tact).
Why?
Females seem to value group harmony more than boys and thus it seems like they give in to others.
Example: At a meeting to plan a school function, girls are just as likely as boys to recognize the flaws in a bad idea, but girls are more willing to go along simply because they don’t want the group to start arguing.

40. Rapport versus Report Talk
Rapport Talk
The language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships
More characteristic of females than of males
Report Talk
Talk that conveys information such as public speaking
More characteristic of males than of females
Males hold center stage through report talk with verbal performances that include story telling, joking, and lecturing with information. Think of play: boys tend to play in large groups that are hierarchically structured. They usually have a leader who tells the others what to do and how to do it. Boys games usually have winners and losers. Boys tend to do a lot of boasting about their skills and arguing about who is best at what.
Females enjoy private rapport talk more and conversation that is relationship-oriented. Think about play: Girls tend to play in small groups or pairs and at the center of a girls world is often a best friend. Intimacy is pervasive in girls’ relationships with peers and close friends. Turn taking is more characteristic of girls than of boys. Girls are more likely just to sit and talk with each other, and are more concerned about being liked by others rather than trying to achieve the leadership position of power.

41. The Peer Influence Enabling interactions Constricting interactions
Actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction
Girls interactions with other girls
Constricting interactions
One partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other, by exaggerating, etc…
Boys interactions with other boys
Girls tend to find enabling interactions ineffective with boys. The subtle overtures that work with girls don’t work with boys. Boys ignore girls’ polite suggestions about what to do and ignore girls efforts to resolve conflicts with discussion.

42. Think about how boys and girls socialize
Males hold center stage through report talk with verbal performances that include story telling, joking, and lecturing with information. Think of play: boys tend to play in large groups that are hierarchically structured. They usually have a leader who tells the others what to do and how to do it. Boys games usually have winners and losers. Boys tend to do a lot of boasting about their skills and arguing about who is best at what.

43. Females enjoy private rapport talk more and conversation that is relationship-oriented. Think about play: Girls tend to play in small groups or pairs and at the center of a girls world is often a best friend. Intimacy is pervasive in girls’ relationships with peers and close friends. Turn taking is more characteristic of girls than of boys.
Girls are more likely just to sit and talk with each other, and are more concerned about being liked by others rather than trying to achieve the leadership position of power.

44. Why is there a gender difference?
Think on Your Own…

45. Parents are more “feeling-oriented” with daughters than with sons
Parents are more “feeling-oriented” with daughters than with sons. They are more likely to talk about their emotions with daughters than with sons. They are more likely to emphasize the importance of considering others’ feelings with their daughter than with their sons.

46. What Influences How Children Learn Gender Roles?

47. Parents
From birth, fathers tend to interact more with sons than daughters while mothers interact more with daughters than sons
Mothers play traditional games like peek-a-boo whereas fathers play more physical, rough-and-tumble activities
Example: a dad might urge his frightened son to jump off a diving board (Be a man!) but not be so insistent with his daughter (That’s okay, honey!).
In play, when assigning household chores: boys are usually given the typical male chores of taking out the trash and mowing the lawn, girls are usually given the typical female chores of washing dishes or housecleaning.
Fathers are more likely to encourage gender-related play. Fathers are more likely to push their sons while accepting more dependence from their daughters. Example: a dad might urge his frightened son to jump off a diving board (Be a man!) but not be so insistent with his daughter (That’s okay, honey!). Mothers are more likely to respond based on the needs of the child rather than just gender.

48. Parents treat sons and daughters similarly, except for gender-related behavior

49. Peers
By 3 years of age, most children’s play shows the impact of gender stereotypes:
Boys prefer blocks and trucks
Girls prefer tea sets and dolls
Young children are even critical of peers who engage in cross-gender play
Once children learn rules about gender-typical play, they often harshly punish peers who violate those rules

50. Peers Continued…
Between 2 and 3 years of age, children begin to prefer playing with same-sex peers
Children spontaneously select same-sex playmates. Adult pressure is not necessary.
Children resist parents efforts to get them to play with members of the opposite sex.
Girls are often unhappy when parents encourage them to play with boys, and boys are unhappy when parents urge them to play with girls.
Boys play with boys, girls play with girls:
Children spontaneously select same-sex playmates. Adult pressure is not necessary.
Children resist parents efforts to get them to play with members of the opposite sex. Girls are often unhappy when parents encourage them to play with boys, and boys are unhappy when parents urge them to play with girls.
Boys and girls prefer same-sex playmates even in gender-neutral activities such as playing tag or doing puzzles.

51. Boys and girls prefer same-sex playmates even in gender-neutral activities such as playing tag or doing puzzles.
This preference increases during childhood, reaching a peak in preadolescence

52. What are your five favorite television programs?
Count the number of major characters in them.
How many of them are male? How many of them are female?
Which characters are highly active and/or have positions of power?
How would you characterize the general nature of the programs action-packed, romantic comedies, sports shows, soap operas?
Most of the list of characters will probably be male (except for soap operas). More of the males in the room will likely chose action and sports shows as their favorites. More of the females in the room will likely choose romantic shows or soap operas.

53. What were your results?
Most of the list of characters will probably be male (except for soap operas).
More males will likely chose action and sports shows as their favorites.
More females will likely choose romantic shows or soap operas.

54. Television
Women on television tend to be cast in romantic, marital, or family roles
They are depicted as emotional, passive and weak
Men on television tend to be cast in leadership or professional roles
They are depicted as rational, active, and strong
Male characters tend to be older and in more powerful roles. Females tend to be young, attractive, and provocatively dressed.
American children between ages of 3 and 11 watch 2 to 4 hours of TV a day.

55. Children who watch a lot of television end up with more stereotyped views of males and females
Children who watch a lot of television prefer gender-typed activities to a greater extent than do children who are less avid viewers

56. How do we develop a sense of being male or female?
Gender Identity
How do we develop a sense of being male or female?
Gender identity -- correctly labeling of self and others as males or females.

57. What do you think?
Imagine you meet a 1-year-old named Leslie who is dressed in gender-neutral clothing and is sporting a bowl-cut hairstyle, so that you cannot tell whether Leslie is a boy or girl.
How long would it be before you become curious about Leslie’s sex? How would you determine whether a 1-year-old like Leslie is a boy or a girl?

58. Development of Gender Identity
The first step is to discriminate males from females and to place oneself in to one of these categories
By 1 year, infants can discriminate male photographs from female photographs
By 2-3 years, children tell us they know about gender
They use “mommy” and “daddy” labels correctly
They use “boy” and “girl” labels correctly
They accurately label themselves as either a boy or girl
Photographs: women have to have long-hair and men have to have short-hair

59. Gender Identity Continued…
Between 3-5 years, children still believe they can change gender identities if they want to
Between 5-7 years, children have a firm, stable, future-oriented identity as a boy or a girl

60. Gender-typed behavior
Age
Gender Identity
Gender Stereotyping
Gender-typed behavior
years
Ability to discriminate males from females emerges and improves.
Child accurately labels the self as a boy or a girl
Some gender stereotypes emerge.
Gender-typed toy/activity preferences emerge.
Preferences for same-sex playmates emerge (gender segregation).
3 - 7 years
Conservation of gender (recognition that one’s gender is unchanging) emerges.
Gender stereotyping of interests, activities, and occupations becomes quite rigid.
Gender-typed play/toy preferences become stronger, particularly for boys.
Gender segregation intensifies.

61. Gender-typed behavior
Age
Gender Identity
Gender Stereotyping
Gender-typed behavior
years
Gender stereotyping of personality traits and achievement domains emerge.
Gender stereotyping becomes less rigid.
Gender segregation intensifies.
Gender-typed toy/activity preferences continue to strengthen for boys; girls develop (or retain) interests in some masculine activities.
12 and beyond
Gender identity becomes more salient.
Intolerance of cross-sex mannerisms increases early in adolescence. Gender stereotyping is becoming more flexible.
Conformity to gender-typed behaviors increase early in adolescence.
Gender segregation becomes less pronounced.