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Behavior Activity Profile
CLASS MEAN HISTORICAL MEAN Interpretation Below 50 = Hard-Core Type B 50-69 = Moderate Type B 70-79 = Low Type B 80-89 = Type X 90-98 = Low Type A = Moderate Type A 122+ = Hard-Core Type A Behavior Activity Profile
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Motivation Motivation Direction Effort / Initiation / Persistence
Arousal Effort / Persistence Direction Motivation Motivation is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal. In terms of this definition, initiation of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs. ("Gosh, I hate writing performance appraisals, so maybe I’ll just add a paragraph to last year’s appraisals," versus "Performance feedback is important. I'm going to schedule an hour to review each file and an hour to write each appraisal.") Direction of effort is concerned with the choices that people make in deciding where to put forth effort in their jobs. ("I'm really excited about the new computer system and can't wait to get started," versus "Yeah, yeah, another new computer system. I'll do what I need to get by with it, but I think my time is better spent working directly with employees and customers.") Persistence of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts. ("We're only halfway to our goal with three months to get it done. We'll never make it, so I'm not going to work at this anymore," versus "We're only halfway to our goal with three months to go, but if we all keep working hard, we can do it.")
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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic Rewards Material Things: Tangible and visible to others Intrinsic Rewards Internal Feelings of Satisfaction such as enjoyment from performing a task Extrinsic rewards are tangible and visible to others and are given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors. External agents (managers, for example) determine and control the distribution, frequency, and amount of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, company stock, benefits, and promotions. Why do companies need extrinsic rewards? To get people to do things they wouldn't otherwise do. Companies use rewards to motivate people to perform three basic behaviors: joining the organization, regularly attending their jobs, and performing their jobs well. By contrast, intrinsic rewards are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. For example, aside from the external rewards management offers for doing something well, employees often experience a sense of interest and enjoyment from the activities or tasks they perform. Examples of intrinsic rewards include a sense of accomplishment or achievement, a feeling of responsibility, the chance to learn something new or interact with others, or simply the fun that comes from performing an interesting, challenging, and engaging task. Which types of rewards are most important to workers in general? A number of surveys suggest that both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are important. One survey found that the most important rewards were good benefits and health insurance, job security, having a week or more of vacation (all extrinsic rewards) and interesting work, the opportunity to learn new skills, and being able to work independently (all intrinsic rewards). And, employee preferences for intrinsic and extrinsic rewards appear to be relatively stable.
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CATEGORIES OF MOTIVATION THEORIES
Content (Need) Theories Process Theories Reinforcement Theory (Ch. 6)
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Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory Herzberg’s Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs Self- Actualization Growth Motivators Need for Achievement Esteem Need for Power Love (social) Relatedness Hygiene Factors Need for Affiliation Safety Existence Physiological
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PROCESS THEORIES Equity Theory Expectancy Theory
Goal-Setting Theory (Ch. 6)
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EQUITY THEORY Unique in viewing motivation as affected by Comparisons to other people. We expect the Ratio of our Outcome to Input to be equivalent to that of others. We are Motivated to correct inequity.
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EXPECTANCY THEORY Analyzes the parts of the Motivation Process that the Leader must attend to (e.g., increasing subordinates’ expectations that they can perform successfully and that, if they do succeed, they will be rewarded with a worthwhile reward)
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GOAL-SETTING THEORY Assumes goals can be motivating
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MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Stimulus Something in the environment that evokes behavior Response A person’s behavior Consequence The result of the response (Positive or Negative)
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Potential Means of Fulfillment at work
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Self Actualization Needs Challenging projects, opportunities for innovation and creativity, training Important projects, recognition, prestigious office location Good coworkers, peers, superiors, customers Job security; benefits, like life insurance; safety regulations Basic pay, work space, heat, water, company cafeteria Esteem Needs Love (social) Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs 3 3
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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY Country Differences
Self-Actualization Highest in U.S., Hong Kong, India Security Highest in Germany, Mexico, Japan Social Highest in Sweden, Singapore Security and Social Tied for highest in France, Chile
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ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY Satisfaction- Progression GROWTH NEEDS Principle
RELATEDNESS EXISTENCE Satisfaction- Progression Principle Frustration- Regression Principle 5 5
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McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS - Successful Top Executives:
NEED LEVEL Achievement Moderate Affiliation Low Power High
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McCLELLAND’S ACQUIRED NEEDS
High Achievers: Desire Personal Responsibility Want immediate, concrete Feedback Take Moderate Risks Often tend to be loners and not team players Those High in Power Motive: Take High Risks
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Resolve Dissatisfaction (neither dissatisfied nor satisfied)
HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY Hygiene Factors Motivators Pay Working Conditions Supervisors Company Policies Benefits Achievement Responsibility Work itself Recognition Growth & Achievement Resolve Dissatisfaction Promote Satisfaction Neutral (neither dissatisfied nor satisfied) 4 4
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Herzberg’s Findings Motivators 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50
10 20 30 40 50 Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Company Policy & Administration Supervision Relationship with supervisor Work conditions Pay Hygiene Factors 24
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Motivation and Money Taylor’s Scientific Management (1911)
Workers are motivated mainly by money Suggested piece-rate system Maslow (1943) People are motivated by hierarchy of needs, which includes money Herzberg (1959) Money usually either dissatisfies or is neutral in its effect You might discuss with students to whom these findings apply. Are they believed to apply to everyone? To professionals? To non-professionals? Students might also be asked to list the top ten factors which motivate them. Where does money fall in this list?
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