1. Theory into Practice Methodologies

2. Introduction Frequent swings of the pendulum Language teachers need to aware of the historical bases of methodological options

3. Pre-twentieth-Century Trends Getting learners to use a language vs. getting learners to analyze a language Greek and Latin as lingua francas Renaissance: formal study of the grammars of Greek and Latin European vernaculars grew in prestige and utility J. A. Comenius

4. Pre-twentieth-Century Trends Beginning of 19 th century: Grammar-Translation (modern language as well) End of 19 th century: the Directive Method 1886: the International Phonetic Alphabet Reading Approach in the US

5. Pre-twentieth-Century Trends World War II: Audiolingual Language Method (US); Situational Approach (Europe)

6. Twentieth-Century Approaches Grammar-Translation Direct Reading Audiolingual Method (United States) Oral-Situational (Britain) Cognitive Affective-Humanistic Comprehension-based Communicative

7. Twentieth-Century Approaches Approach: a certain model or research paradigm Method: a set of procedures Technique: a classroom device or activity Richards & Rodger ’ s Model: Approach, Design & Procedures

8. Reaction to perceived inadequacies Cognitive Approach: Language is rule- governed cognitive behavior (not habit formation) Affective-Humanistic Approach: Learning a foreign language is a process of self- realization and of relating to other people Comprehension Approach: Language acquisition occurs if and only if the learner comprehends meaningful input Communicative approach: The purpose of language is communication

9. Designer Methods Silent Way (Gattegno 1976) Community Language Learning (Curran 1976) Total Physical Response (Asher 1977) Desuggestopedia (Lozanov 1978)

10. Grammar-Translation Method (1) Classical Method The learning of Latin or Greek Focus on grammatical rules; Memorization of vocabulary; Translation of texts; Doing written exercise

11. Grammar-Translation Method (2) Characteristics (1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue. (2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. (3) Long explanation of the intricacies of grammar are given. (4) Instruction often focuses on the rules for putting words together.

12. Grammar-Translation Method (3) (5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. (6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts. (7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. (8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

13. Grammar-Translation Method (4) Procedure Step 1: The teacher translates ‘ red ’, ‘ yellow ’, ‘ green ’, ‘ blue ’ into Chinese. Students read after the teacher. Step 2: Students open the book, and the teacher read, ‘ The book is red ’, ‘ The pencil is yellow ’, ‘ It is green ’, ‘ The bag is blue ’. The students translate the sentences into Chinese.

14. Grammar-Translation Method (5) Step 3: The teacher explains the sentence structure of ‘ S is Color ’ and ‘ It is Color ’. Step 4: The teacher says, ‘ The box is green. The door is blue. It is red. ’ Students need to translate the sentences.

15. Grammar-Translation Method (6) Influences (1) Accuracy (2) Translations (3) Few specialized skills are required on the part of teachers.

16. The Direct Method (1) The second language learning should be more like first language learning – lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules. The Berlitz Method

17. The Direct Method (2) Characteristics (1) Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language. (2) Only everyday vocabulary and sentence were taught. (3) Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

18. The Direct Method (3) (4) Grammar was taught inductively. (5) New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice. (6) Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. (7) Both speech and listening comprehension were taught. (8) Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

19. The Direct Method (4) Procedure (1) The teacher holds up cards with different colors. He points to each card and says, ‘ It is white. It is black. It is brown. ’ (2) The teacher points to the wall, the hair and the door and keeps saying the sentences.

20. The Direct Method (5) Influences (1) Use target language only (2) Use various teaching materials. (3) Emphasize on teaching techniques. (4) The importance on oral communication.

21. The Audio-Lingual Method (1) An oral-based approach Emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations Army Method / Michigan Method

22. The Audio-Lingual Method (2) Characteristics (1) New materials is presented in dialogue form. (2) There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over- learning. (3) Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

23. The Audio-Lingual Method (3) (4) Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. (5) There is little or no grammatical explanation. (6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. (8) There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.

24. The Audio-Lingual Method (4) (8) Great importance is attached to pronunciation. (9) Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted. (10) Successful responses are immediately reinforced. (11) There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.

25. The Audio-Lingual Method (5) Procedure (1) A dialogue (2) Drills (3) Role play

26. The Audio-Lingual Method (6) Influences (1) Habit formation (2) Drills

27. Total Physical Response (1) Trace theory of learning: memory is increased if it is stimulated, or “ traced, ” through association with motor activity. Associating language with physical activity Principles of child language acquisition + Right brain learning + Stress-free learning

28. Total Physical Response (2) Characteristics (1) Comprehension comes before production. (2) Students do a great deal of listening and acting. (3) The teacher is very directive in orchestrating a performance.

29. Total Physical Response (3) (4) Imperative drills are used to elicit physical actions. (5) The objective is to teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can communicate uninhibitedly and intelligibly with native speakers.

30. Total Physical Response (4) Procedure (1) The teacher says, and the teacher does. “ Point to the green (blue, red) card. ” (2) The teacher says, and the students do. (3) The students say, and the students do. (4) The teacher says a series of commands. “ Hold up the black card. ” “ Kiss the white card. ”

31. Total Physical Response (5) (5) Sing and act Red, red, red, touch your head. Blue, blue, blue, tie your shoe. Brown, brown, brown, touch the ground. White, white, white, take a bite. (from 陳淳麗，國小英語師資訓 練手冊 )

32. Total Physical Response (6) Influences (1) Successful second language learning should be a parallel process to child first language acquisition. (2) Appropriate activities can produce stress-free learning. (3) Learners are encourage to speak when they feel ready to speak.

33. Syllabus Structural syllabus: a list of grammatical inflections and constructions (Grammar-Translation / Direct / Audiolingual / Cognitive) Text-based syllabus: texts and vocabulary items with only minor consideration given to grammar

34. Syllabus Notional-Functional syllabus: meanings such as spacial location, time, degree; social transactions and interaction such as asking for information Communicative syllabus: real-world tasks and authentic materials Learner-generated syllabus (CLL)

35. Successful Practice Assess student needs Examine instructional constraints Determine the attitudes and learner styles Identify the discourse genres, speech activities, and text types Specify how the students ’ language learning will be assessed