1. Archeological evidence indicates that during the Paleolithic era, hunting-foraging bands of humans gradually migrated from their origin in East Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas, adapting their technology and cultures to new climate regions.
Economic structures focused on small kinship groups of hunting foraging bands that could make what they needed to survive. However, not all groups were self-sufficient; they exchanged people, ideas, and goods.

2. I. Paleolithic Era A. Hunter-Gathering
1. Locations: East Africa to Eurasia – Australia – Americas
2. Technologies / Cultures individual
3. Kinship groups
4. Exchange (people – ideas – goods) Cultural Diffusion

3. Broad Themes of the Paleolithic / Neolithic Period
Hunter and gatherers gradually migrated around the world adapting their technology and cultures to the new
Interactions were limited to groups that were geographically nearby but cultural diffusion did occur.
Agriculture is the second great human process after settlement of the globe. The Neolithic (New Stone Age) / Agricultural Revolution started about 12,000 years ago.
Agriculture brought new relationships between humans and other living things. Humans actively changed nature, instead of using what they found. They shaped the landscape and selectively bred animals.

4. B. Themes 1. Migration/Adaptation 2. Cultural Diffusion 3. Agriculture
a. second great process
b. new relationship changes nature
c. bred animals

9. Human migration north through Africa is contentious
Human migration north through Africa is contentious. This paper uses a novel palaeohydrological and hydraulic modelling approach to test the hypothesis that under wetter climates c.100,000 years ago major river systems ran north across the Sahara to the Mediterranean, creating viable migration routes. We confirm that three of these now buried palaeo river systems could have been active at the key time of human migration across the Sahara. Unexpectedly, it is the most western of these three rivers, the Irharhar river, that represents the most likely route for human migration. The Irharhar river flows directly south to north, uniquely linking the mountain areas experiencing monsoon climates at these times to temperate Mediterranean environments where food and resources would have been abundant. The findings have major implications for our understanding of how humans migrated north through Africa, for the first time providing a quantitative perspective on the probabilities that these routes were viable for human habitation at these times. Tassili-n-Ajjer is a mountain range in the Algerian section of the Sahara Desert. The range is noted for its prehistoric rock art and other ancient archaeological sites, dating from Neolithic times when the local climate was much moister, with savannah rather than desert. 
OPTIC: Tassili-n-Ajjer rock art is at least 9000 years old, Algerian section of the Sahara desert.

10. Neolithic Revolution: The changeover from food gathering in human history to food producing and the resulting transformation of human society and the natural environment.
Global Warming 16,000 – 10,000 B.C.E.
Settling down occurred 12,000 – 4,000 B.C.E. among some populations
Population:
70,000 yrs. Ago: 10,000 humans
30,000 yrs. Ago: 500,000 humans
10,000 yrs. Ago: 6 million humans
5,000 yrs. Ago: 50 million humans
101 yrs. Ago: 250 million humans

11. C. Neolithic Revolution
1. Gathering to producing
2. Global Warming = Settling
a. 16, ,000
3. Rapid population rise with agriculture
a. increase birth rates = catalytic cycle

12. Possibly as a response to climatic change, permanent agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean. Agriculture emerged at different times in Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River or Huang He Valley, Papua New Guinea, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.

14. D. Agricultural Villages
1. Eastern Mediterranean: Mesopotamia
Tigris/ Euphrates
2. Egypt: Nile River
3. Sub-Saharan Africa: Niger River
4. India: Indus River
5. East Asia: Yellow/Huang He River
6. Southeast Asia: Papua New Guinea
7. Mesoamerica: swamplands
8. Andes: Intermountain zones

16. Between 7,000 B.C.E. and 4,000 B.C.E. villages had grown into towns. These aren’t quite cities, but they are foreshadowing what’s to come.
Jericho on Jordan river – mud/brick houses surrounded by a big wall
Catal-Huyuk, in Turkey – joined houses together so that people couldn’t invade them
Organized – start trading from other towns, as far as Sinai for Turquoise (Jericho)
Villages practiced relative gender equality and a mix of matrilineal and patrilineal social structures
Chiefdoms develop: 6,000 B.C.E.: descent from some ancestor. Tribute collected for redistribution. Division of labor and surpluses created.

17. E. Earliest organized cities
1. Fertile Crescent: Mesopotamia (The Land between two Rivers) a. This was the first region to develop agriculture around 11,000 B.C.E. b. Catal-Huyuk: Southern Turkey: 7,000 B.C.E. 1. pueblo style architecture c. Jericho: Jordan River: 7,000 B.C.E. 1. mud brick round houses 2. twelve foot walls d. Both cities relied on agriculture and trade 1. gender equality 2. matrilineal/patrilineal e. Chiefdoms 6,000 B.C.E. 1. ancestor connection 2. Tribute 3. Division of labor 4. Surpluses

21. Cultural Hearths: The areas where civilizations first began to radiate the ideas, innovations, and ideologies that culturally transformed the world.

22. Features of Civilization
- monumental architecture
- large population
- powerful state – able to wage war
- economic and social inequality

23. II. River Valley Civilizations A. Features of Civilization
1. monumental architecture – large pop.
2. powerful state – able to wage war
3. economic and social inequality
B. Urban Revolution
1. cities
2. specialized industries
C. Social Classes and inequalities
1. Upper class: great wealth – no physical labor –
top positions in political, military, and religious life
2. Free commoners: artisans – low level officials – police –
servants, and farmers, their surplus used to support
upper class
3. Slaves: bottom – first generation = prisoners of war –
criminals - debtors

24. TIGRIS-EUPHRATES Mesopotamia (land between rivers) People in area must
Harsh heat, drought; unpredictable floods
Few natural resources; no wood
No natural defensive areas such as hills
Area open to invasion by nomads
People in area must
Provide permanent food supply
Regulate, provide permanent water supply
Provide defense against invaders
Acquire materials such as timber, minerals
Modern-day Tigris-Euphrates runs through Turkey, Syria, Iraq – empties into the Persian gulf

25. TIGRIS-EUPHRATES “Necessity is the mother of invention”
Sumer in S. Iraq: first civilization (5000 bce)
Create cuneiform, the first writing
City-states ruled by priests and kings
Wars over irrigated farmland
Land-owning aristocracy dominate; most of the population were farmers or slaves
Polytheistic religion tied to nature
City-states in Sumer (Eridu, Uk, Urk, Umma, Lagash – they start to control the farmland around them; surround it with walls
Cuneiform = wedges in clay tablets; helps laws, treaties, religious customs
Mathematics – twelve-month calendar
Religion – gods for certain city-states (plus a bunch that everyone shared) –ziggurats

26. LATER MESOPOTAMIANS Cycle of Civilization Akkadian “First”
Nomads come in and conquer sedentary people
Conquerors assimilate local sedentary culture
New civilization blends cultures, thrives for a while
“New” civilization grows old, invaded by nomads
Akkadian “First”
First Empire
Sargon conquered all of Sumer
Babylonian “First”
City at junction of Tigris-Euphrates
Hammurabi’s Law Code
Epic of Gilgamesh
Sargon of Akkad founds the Akkadian empire in 2300bce --- helps spread Sumerian ways throughout the area
Then the Babylonians come in – King Hammurabbi develops Code of Hammu – very egalitarian
(then the Hittites, and the Persians….they each kinda form empires here)
Gilgamesh is basically a bromance between him and Enkidu – goes searching for eternal life and doesn’t find it

27. MESOPOTAMIA AS A CHART

28. THE NILE RIVER Society very different from Sumer Achievements
Nile flooded regularly, predictably
Provided rich soil, Easy soil to farm
Civilization regulated flooding, surveying
Location isolated
Pharaoh was considered god-king
Theocracy, almost absolute
Built pyramid tombs for dead
Egypt unified for most of history
Queen Hatsheput
Achievements
Mathematics especially geometry; architecture
Astronomy and medicine
Hieroglyphics
The Nile is isolated – so you don’t have nomads showing up at your door every five minutes being like “hey we rule here now”
Predictability of Nile = bigger surpluses
Order of social structure: pharaoh, priests, nobles, peasants, slaves
First pharaoh is supposedly Menes in 3100bce – but we’re not even sure if he’s real
Religion very focused around the afterlife – you can take things with you
Queen Hatsheput – 22 years rule during the New Kingdom, expanded trade greatly, generally Egyptian women had more rights/individuality than Mesopotamia (New Kingdom, could buy, sell, inherit property, dissolve marriages --- BUT still a patriarchy)

29. HUANG-HE (YELLOW) RIVER
Developed in isolation
Along lower Yellow River
Rich loess soil
Constantly flooding
First Dynasties
Control of flooding critical
Xia Dynasty (Mythical?)
God-like kings
Taught irrigation, silkmaking
Shang Dynasty
Warlike kings, landed aristocracy; few priests
Most people worked land as peasants
Elaborate bronze workings; naturalistic art

30. CHINESE WRITING Originated during Shang Ideographic
Writing denotes ideas
First used on Oracle Bones
Priests asked gods questions
Wrote questions on bones
Tossed into fire
Cracks read by priests (divination)
Elitist technique = scholar-bureaucrats
Extremely difficult to read
Required well-educated class to use
Only elite had time to learn
Cuneiform, hieroglyphs had similar effects

31. MANDATE OF HEAVEN Chinese political idea Indicators of a Lost Mandate
Rulers exercise power given by heaven
Rulers continue to rule if heaven pleased
Heaven will take back mandate to rule
Heaven will replace ruling dynasty
Indicators of a Lost Mandate
Wars, invasions, military disasters
Over-taxation, disgruntled peasants
Social, moral decline of elite classes
Increased crime, banditry

32. DYNASTIC CYCLE One ruling family replaces another Stages in Cycle
The Dynasty Changes
Due to the loss of the Mandate of Heaven
Stages in Cycle
New dynasty arises, takes control of China
Strengthens rule, reestablishes prosperity, peace
Weakens, becomes lazy, problems arise
Invasions, revolts toss out reigning dynasty
Shang replaces Xia, Zhou replaces Shang

33. HOW THE CYCLE AND MANDATE WORK TOGETHER

34. INDUS VALLEY Arose around 2,500 BCE Collapse Main Cities
Mohenjo Daro
Harappa
Hundreds of other settlements
Independent city-states, strong government
Extremely well-planned, coordinated cities
Elaborate writing system (undeciphered)
Religion
Worshipped mother goddess
Evidence of priestly class and temples
Collapse
Little evidence of warfare until end
Devastated by environmental upheavals
Destroyed by Indo-European (Aryan) nomads
Cities abandoned

35. MEANWHILE, IN AMERICAS Olmec around Gulf of Mexico, 1200bce
Used rainfall for agriculture
Cities are centers of trade, religion
Priests and ruling class over others
Giant stone heads (as tall as 2 Mr. Storcks!)
Chavin off coast of Peru, 900bce
Two major regions: mountains and coast
Trade routes running through mountains
CONTRAST: Neither are river valleys
The Olmec traded things like salt, cacao, clay, and limestone – jade especially important

36. HERITAGES First heritages
Passed thru children
Writing systems inherited
Intellectual systems, art copied
Religious, philosophical systems copied
Useful inventions rarely forgotten, easily spread
River valley civilizations decline by 1000BCE
All subject to nomadic invasions
Indo-Europeans and Semites were strongest
Geographical centers shifted (all except China)
Political Structures often not continued

37. CIVILIZATION SPREADS Phoenician Sailors in Lebanon Asia Minor
City-states traded across Mediterranean
Invented 22-letter alphabet
Asia Minor
Hittites introduced Iron
Lydians introduced coinage to area
Hebrews in Palestine
Large Semitic migration in area
There is only one God speaking through prophets, priests
God made a covenant with the Jews, his Chosen people
Ethical monotheism
Conduct determines salvation
Man is not eternally damned if he follows God’s rules, repents

38. NOMADS: BARBARIANS? Pastoralism Seen as savages
Domestication of animals
Way of life based on herding
Often on fringes
Bordered settled areas
Seen as savages
Interaction vs. conflict
Nomads traded, coexisted with settled areas
Nomads warred on, conquered settled areas
Often protected merchants, allowed trade
Prior to 1500 BCE little major threat
Chariot Peoples (Central Asian Indo-Europeans)
Domesticated horse, invented chariot, iron weapons
Pushed into SW Asia, S. Asia, E. Asia, Europe
Responsible for spread of ideas, trade

39. Classical Civilization
Greeks, Persians, Guptas, Mauryans, The Han, The Qin, Romans

40. Classical Periodization
8000 BCE – 600 BCE = ANCIENT
600 BCE – 600 CE = CLASSICAL

41. PHYSICAL MAP OF AREA

42. Ancient & Classical Greece
Ancient: 2000 BCE – 1100 BCE
Minoans
Mycenaeans
Classical Greeks will inherit language, gods, technology, trade routes, early political and social structure from their two predecessors.
Cosmopolitan Mediterranean at this time
Greek Dark Age: 1100 BCE – 800 BCE
Iliad/Odyssey composed by Homer in this period
Invasion of Troy
Phoenicians begin to reconnect Greece with the rest of the Mediterranean
Result: Greece trades again ~800 BCE
Result: Greeks borrow the Phoenician alphabet & make their own

43. ANCIENT GREECE

44. Archaic Greece: 800-480 BCE Oral tradition kept Greek culture alive
Imagine keeping the Odyssey or Iliad alive through memory and speech…disgusting, right?
Polis (pl. poleis) – city-state. Autonomous. Geography!
Colonization – Black Sea, Southern Italy, Sicily, Anatolia, Aegean Islands, North Africa, Southern France
Economically motivated
Took fire from hearth of home city to colony
Greeks = Hellenes. Non-Greeks = Barbaroi
Councils of nobles = pol. dominant, owned lots o’ land
Peasants/debt slaves worked land
Small middle class of merchants, craftsmen
Religion – anthropomorphic gods. Athena, Zeus, etc.
Humanism – celebration of the individual
Greece slowly moving from monarchy/oligarchy to democracy

45. RATIONITY AND PHILOSOPHY
The formation of Greek cultural traditions
From the 8th century, drew inspirations from Mesopotamia and Egypt
About 800 B.C.E., adapted the Phoenicians' alphabet to their own language
The Greek cultural feature: a philosophy based on human reason, rationality
Socrates ( B.C.E.)
Athenian philosopher, determined to understand humans
Encouraged reflection on ethics and morality
Integrity was more important than wealth and fame
"The unexamined life is not worth living"
Critical scrutiny to traditional ethical teachings
Condemned to death for corrupting Athenian youths
Plato ( B.C.E.)
A zealous disciple of Socrates
The theory of Forms or Ideas
His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
Aristotle ( B.C.E.)
Plato's disciple, but distrusted theory of Forms or Ideas
Devised rules of logic, scientific method, father of western science
His Nicomedian Ethics became later basis in Christianity
Legacy of Greek philosophy
Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until 17th century
Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians.
Provided a powerful intellectual framework for future generations

46. GREEK TRIBES

47. THE GREEK WORLD

48. Classical Greece: 480-323 BCE
Athens & Sparta = politically dominant poleis
Sparta:
professional army, people existed to support Sparta
Isolated mostly, few political alliances
Women: raise strong children, voices welcomed in public debate
Athens:
4 classes of people, classes 1-3 = participated politically, class 4 = no political participation. Really, only about 15% of people participated.
Classes separated by amount of wealth/land holdings
Pericles later will alter system to let lower classes hold office
Strong navy – secured trade routes, used to hold down Delian League members
Women: produce children, stay at home, no political rights
Hoplite – Greek footsoldier. Fought in phalanx.
Persia comes into the picture
Ionian Greek Mitelene. Persia squashes it.
Athens had supported Ionian Greeks. Persia goes after Athens.
Darius’ Invasion
The battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E.
Greeks led by Spartans and Athens battled Persia to a draw
Xerxes Invasion
To fight Persians, Athenians build a wall of wood, or a navy
Xerxes seized, burned Athens
Athenian navy destroys Persian in the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.E.
Persian army retreated back to Anatolia, 479 B.C.E.

49. POLIS OF ATTICA

50. LACONIA: SPARTA

51. MAPPING THE PERSIAN WARS

52. Classical Greece (cont.)
Peloponnesian War (431 ~ 404 BCE): everyone hates Athens.
Athens = greedy, tyrannical towards Delian League.
Rebuilt by Pericles
Sparta, Delian League, money from Persia go to war w/Athens.
Fighting rampant, even goes as far west as Sicily.
Sparta wins, even w/lesser navy than Athens.
Plague in Athens helped, too.
Spartan rule was no better than Athenian rule.
Political unrest in Greece continued.
Spartan hegemony soon replaced by Theban hegemony.
Meanwhile, in Macedonia…
King Philip II ( BCE) – great military leader/strategist
Father of Alexander the Great
Longer spears, cavalry, catapults
Defeats southern Greece, tries to launch attack vs. Persia
However, is assassinated before he can see it through.

53. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR

54. Hellenistic Greece: 323-30 BCE
Alexander the Great ( BCE)
Avenges Persian attacks on Greece, conquers the known world.
Conquered an empire that expanded from Greece, to Egypt, the Levant, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Persia, and even into India.
How do you manage a beast this big?
Put loyal Greek officials in charge of conquered poleis.
Later, this changed to Persian officials, much resented by Greek soldiers.
Saw himself as the rightful heir to the Persian throne
Began dressing in Persian clothing, adhering to Persian culture
Again, this is VERY unpopular with his Greek friends and fellow soldiers
Dies at the age of 32.
Other than the military conquests, why is he important?
Later kings, Caesars will develop an “Alexander complex”
Julius Caesar is known to have cried on his 32nd birthday because his achievements were nothing like Alexander’s.
Tomb/body of Alexander – relic site long ago, unknown whereabouts now.
Greek Hellenistic age ends after Rome finally subjugates Greece.

55. ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE

56. HELLENISTIC WORLD

57. TEMPLES AND THEATRES

58. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

59. Persian Empire: BCE
From modern Iran, largest empire to this date in history
Took over Neo-Assyrian empire
Medes: Persians who challenged Neo-Assyrian rule
Empire: Greece to India, as far north as Caucasus Mntns, as far south as North Africa
Cyrus I: Founder – conquers Anatolia/Babylonia.
Lets Jews in OT go home. (end of Babylonian Captivity)
Darius I: Organizer & Lawgiver Divides empire into 23 satrapies (satrap = governor related to royal family)
satrap: collect taxes, oversee territory, lots of autonomy further from the capital
Conquered Indus
Decentralized system. Conquered lived according to own traditions.
Est. new Persepolis
Zoroastrianism – Heaven/Hell, 1 supreme god, reward/punishment, “messiah.” Monotheistic polytheism – Ahura Mazda – supreme deity, over lesser deities.
Standardized coins, big empire, roads, stability brought forth good trade

60. PERSEPOLIS

61. Classical India Pre-classical India
Indus->Aryans, or Harappan Age-> Vedic Age
Varna: 4 social classes (castes)
Priests/scholars (Brahmin), warriors/govt officials (Kshatriya), merchants/artisans (Vaishya), peasants/workers (Shudra)
5th class: untouchables, given demeaning jobs
Rigid social hierarchy threatened by 8th Cent BCE
Brahmins – most powerful class
Jainism – nonviolence, self-denial, value of all living things
Buddhism – Siddhartha (Kshatriya)
Four noble truths: life is suffering, suffering comes from desire, suffering will end if desire ends, way to end desire is the Eightfold path.
Reach nirvana at the end cycle of reincarnation
Will spread to much of India, Asia after 483 BCE
Mahayanas – worshipped Buddha as a god & bodhisattvas (enlightened men and women who gave up nirvana to help lead others). Central/Western Asia.
Theravadas – no Buddha images, no worship of Buddha. Basics. SE Asia.

62. Classical India (cont.)
Buddhism’s popularity forces Vedic religion to evolve to Hinduism
Brahmins – still powerful, but gave people more personal connection to gods.
Hinduism borrowed much from Buddhism, even drove it from its land of origin.
Outside pre-Mauryan intrusions: Persians – 520 BCE(Indus satrapy), Alexander – 327 BCE (left local rulers to their own)
Political unification – tough in India
Geography, rigid social hierarchy, diverse languages, customs, varied economies, castes
BCE – Mauryan Empire – all of India except southern tip
Founded by Chandragupta Maurya – Arthrashastra (political handbook)
Coinage, govt controlled mines, large army, ¼ of peasant crops paid to king
Spoils system – gave positions to allies/relatives
Ashoka – most famous Mauryan. Est. new capital at Pataliputra
Brutal in warfare, extends Mauryan empire to its height
Reflects on brutality, gives it up for nonviolence & tolerance of Buddhism (260)
Moral codes inscribed on pillars throughout empire
Roads/maritime trade routes made India a hub for trade from SE/Central Asia/China w/Mediterranean, Middle East, even the Philippines
Collapsed due to outside invaders, high cost of empire/maintaining borders

64. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

65. Mauryan Guptan

66. Classical India (cont.)
Gupta Empire ( CE) – Golden Age of Hinduism
Leaders controlled agriculture/mining like Mauryans
Subjects donated labor for big projects
Trade/industry brought wealth to shudras/vaishyas
More decentralized than Mauryans
Local leaders were autonomous
But, could keep some profits from trade
Gave them incentive to stay loyal to Guptas
Big army helped keep order, but wasn’t enough
Invented concept of ‘0’ (zero).
Invented “Arabic” numerals
Collapsed after Huns attacked in 550 CE. Result: fragmentation
Women in Classical India: role changed w/economic changes
Increased trade->urban middle class->value on property-> women couldn’t own property
Expected, like under Confucianism, to obey male family members
Sati –throwing one’s self on your husband’s funeral pyre
Buddhism/Jainism – gave women a little more freedom than Hinduism
Upper class women could be educated

68. Classical China – more Qins than a Chinese phonebook
End of Zhou: Warring States Period
Political fragmentation, feudalism, warlords!
Qin ( BCE) – led by Shi Huangdi defeat Zhou
China’s first empire – unification!
Legalism – strict rule, little care for subjects
Totalitarianism – state/leader is the end of all things. Controls political life, economics, military, religion, etc.
Slavery abolished to create free labor/taxable citizens/military conscripts
Standard coinage, laws, 1000’s of miles of road, canals, walls
Helped secure & consolidate home & vs. outsiders
Also held noble sons hostage, destroyed noble castles
Had 460 Confucian scholars buried alive for opposing the Qin.
Iron technology. Used in warfare, agriculture.
After Shi Huangdi dies, people revolt vs. oppressive Qins
Qin royal afterlife: Terracotta soldiers protected Shi Huangdi’s tomb. All individual faces.

70. Classical China (cont.)
Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)
Located by eastern river valleys
Tax system: based on crops
Men donated 1 month of labor to build infrastructure & 2 years military service
Confucianism – clear hierarchy, ppl saw themselves having a role in the family/society
Expansionist: conquered modern Vietnam & Korea
Emperor: Son of Heaven. Just like the Zhou.
Local leaders: taxed, organized labor, defended empire
Government meritocracy: young men went to universities in order to get gov’t positions. Really, only the wealthy had time/money to send sons to university. They then became part of a massive bureaucracy.
Result: Peasants, alienated by high-ranking Confucianism, turn to Daoism, which was principally opposed to Confucianism.

71. MAPPING HAN CHINA

72. Classical China (cont.)
Women under the Han: subjugated
Ban Zhao – Admonitions for Women
Achievements of Han: crossbow, cavalry, horse collar, road system, watermill, paper, silk & the silk road!
Fall of Han: empire was too costly. Too much frontier, too much corruption in government, too few troops left to garrison, too many regional warlords, & peasant rebellions.
Expansionist expeditions wasted gov’t coffers, defense money spent fighting outside nomads
Wide gulf between rich and poor.
Land possessed by few people, unlike early Han.
China fragments once again after the Han

73. FROM KINGDOM TO REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE
THE ROMANS
FROM KINGDOM TO REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE

74. EARLY ROME The Etruscans Romulus and Remus The kingdom of Rome
Probably migrated from Anatolia
Dominated Italy from the 8th to 5th centuries B.C.E.
City-states were constantly at war
Similar in own way to Greek society
Arch, religion, alphabet, early traditions given to Rome
Declined, attacked by Gaul and defeated by Greek fleets
Romulus and Remus
Legend: twins rescued by a she-wolf
Founded Rome in 753 B.C.E.
Indo-European migrants settled in Italy from 2000 B.C.E.
Came from Latins, a tribe of the Italics
The kingdom of Rome
A small kingdom on the Tiber River, ruled by monarchies
Easy access to the Mediterranean, trade routes led to Rome
Agriculture, warfare were typical
Society dominated by aristocracy called patricians

75. THE WORLD OF EARLY ROME

76. EARLY ROMAN REPUBLIC Establishment of the Republic
Rome nobility deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 B.C.E.
Republican constitution
Included two consuls: civil and military
Consuls elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians
The Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions
Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians
Conflicts between patricians and plebeians
Plebeians' threat to secede from Rome
Patricians granted plebeians the tribunes
Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions
Tribunes dominated Roman politics, early 3rd century B.C.E.
In times of crisis, ruled by short-term dictatorship
Elected for six month term
Given unlimited power

77. ROMAN REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT
Monarchical
Aristocratic
Democratic
2 Consuls and
Magistrates
Senate
(Senators)
Assembly of Tribes
(10 Tribunes)
Directed government
Control army
Acted as judges
Could issue edicts
Acted as chief priest
Controlled state budget
Could pass laws
Approved/rejected laws; Decided on War
Tribune could veto actions of magistrate
Acted as final court
Basis of power:
possess imperium,
the right to rule
need for leadership
members were richest men in Rome.
provided most of the soldiers
Limits on power:
one year term
each could veto
could not control army; needed majority as soldiers.
Could not suggest laws;
often paid as clients by the elite

78. EXPANSION OF REPUBLIC The Legion gave Rome incredible power
Roman military formation of 5,000 men
Extremely organized; all officers well trained
Shields, swords (two edged) were revolutionary
Subunits could operate on own without central commands
Consolidated position in Italy BY 4th centuries B.C.E.
Conflict with Italics and Greeks in S. Italy
New Roman colonies founded – with Roman rights
Created alliances with Italics – given Latin rights
Expanded Roman territory to include choice lands
Makes local aristocrats Roman citizens, allow to retain their lands
The Punic Wars ( B.C.E.)
Battled descendants of Phoenicians for control of Sicily, Spain
Built navy to challenge Carthage
Defeated Carthaginians and conquered Africa
Conflicts with Antigonids and Seleucids,
Five major wars
Created alliances as with Italy, colonies of Roman settlers
Rome became a preeminent power in the Mediterranean

79. ROMAN LEGION

80. THE PUNIC WARS
Hannibal’s Elephants
Hannibal
Scipio
Africanus

81. THE END OF THE REPUBLIC Social Tension The Gracchi brothers
Long wars ruined most small farmers
During war could not plant or harvest, debts increased
Forced to sell land to patricians, move to city as day laborers
Poor often sold into slavery
Increased slavery more profitable than hiring Roman poor
Migration of poor to cities produced lawlessness
The Gracchi brothers
Tiberius Gracchus represented interests of Rome's lower classes
Served as a tribune, passed a law that set limits for landholding
Assassinated in 132 B.C.E.
The younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, continued the reform
Was branded as a outlaw, killed by mercenaries
Republican government could no longer maintain power balance
Marius and Sulla
Gaius Marius recruited a private army from landless residents
Conservative aristocratic class supported Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Both raised troops illegally under Roman law
Civil War
Marius seized Rome in 87 B.C.E.
Sulla seized Rome in 83 B.C.E. after Marius died, 5 years of terror

82. EXPANSION OF THE REPUBLIC

83. FOUNDATION OF EMPIRE Julius Caesar First Civil War
Marius's nephew
Favored liberal policies and social reform
Gained fame by sponsoring public spectacles
Conquered Gaul, became more popular
First Civil War
Seized Rome in 49 B.C.E.
Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46 B.C.E.
Social reforms and centralized control
Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
Second Civil War to Avenge Caesar’s murders
Augustus
Octavian, nephew of Caesar, brought civil conflict to an end
The Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus, 27 B.C.E.
Augustus's administration
A monarchy disguised as a republic
Preserved traditional republican forms of government
Took all the power into his own hands
Created a new standing army under his control
The imperial institutions began to take root

84. EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT

85. THE PAX ROMANA
Roman expansion had effects in Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain
Romans sought access to resources
Built legionary camps to defend; Roman officials ran provinces
Provincial elite began to build estates and control resources
Came from two sources: Roman colonists, local ethnic elites
Elites became largely Romanized
Cities emerged, roads built, common currency, laws
Allowed locals to retain customs, traditions if paid their taxes
The pax romana
Meant "Roman peace," lasted for two and half centuries
Facilitated trade and communication
World linked from Mesopotamia to Atlantic Ocean
Roman roads
Roman engineers as outstanding road builders
Roads and postal system linked all parts of the empire
Roman law
Tradition: Twelve Tables enacted in 450 B.C.E.
Principle: innocent until proven guilty
Judges enjoyed great discretion

86. ROMAN ROADS

87. TRADE & URBANIZATION Commercial agriculture Mediterranean trade
Owners of latifundia focused on production for export
Commercial agriculture led to economic specialization, integration
Slavery preferred over labor saving devices and paid labor
Mediterranean trade
Sea-lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean
Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates
The Mediterranean became a Roman lake
The city of Rome
Wealth of the city fueled its urban development
Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums
First use of concrete as construction material
Rome attracted numerous immigrants
City attractions
Public baths, swimming pools, gymnasia
Enormous circuses, stadiums, and amphitheaters
Other Cities
Most large cities were in Eastern part of empire
Eastern cities largely dominated by Greeks
Cities include Alexandria, Antioch, Athens, Pergammum, Thessalonika

88. CLASSICAL ROME

89. ROMAN FAMILY, SOCIETY The pater familias Wealth and social change
Roman family: all household members living together
Pater familias or "father of the family" ruled
Women wielded influence within their families
Many women supervised family business, estates
Wealth and social change
Rich classes built palatial houses, lavish banquets
Cultivators, urban masses lived at subsistence level
Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities
No urban policy developed, only "bread and circuses“
Merchants tolerated but not given much social recognition
Slavery
Slaves - 1/3 of Roman population
Chained together in teams, worked on latifundia
Spartacus's uprising in 73 B.C.E.
Working conditions for city slaves were better
Epictetus, an Anatolian slave, became a prominent Stoic philosopher
Urban slaves could hope for manumission
The gladiator or a slave trained to fight in the arena was popular

90. ROMAN WORLD VIEW Veritas and Gravitas Roman Polytheism
Honesty and Seriousness
Symbolized Roman cultural values
Roman Polytheism
Early deities: Jupiter, Mars, Ceres, Janus, Vesta
Newly adapted deities: Juno, Minerva
Borrowed, co-opted foreign deities into pantheon
Religion was agricultural, state oriented, important to family
Very little emotional attachment to gods
Greek influence represented by Philosophy
Stoicism appealed to Roman intellectuals
Cicero ( B.C.E.) established Stoicism in Rome
Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius wrote extensively
Religions of salvation and Cults
Flourished in Rome and the Mediterranean basin
Roman roads served as highways for religious spread
Mithraism
Mithras, a god of sun and light in Zoroastrian mythology
Roman soldiers adapted it, associated it with military value
Moral teaching of Mithraism, only for men
Goddess Cybele and goddess Isis were also popular

91. JUDAISM & CHRISTIANITY
The Jews and the empire
Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy
Romans ruled through Jewish elites, tolerant of Judaism
Constant rivalry between Pharisees, Sadducces, Zealots
Roman Jewish provinces ruled by client kings such as Herod
The Essenes
A new sect of Judaism, founded in Palestine during the 1st century B.C.E.
Strict moral code, baptism, and ritual community meals
Jesus of Nazareth
Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God, love for human beings
The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans
Crucifixion in early 30s C.E.; Became "Christ," or "the anointed one"
New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of Christianity
Paul of Tarsus
A Jew from Anatolia, zealously preached his faith beyond Jewish communities
Was Roman citizen by birth in a Greek city; from Pharisee family
Paul who spread the faith in Mediterranean through missions
Was finally executed by Roman officials
66 – 70 CE
The Jewish War (66-70 C.E.) Roman forces defeated the Jewish rebels
Jews expelled Christians from the temple (from Judaism)

92. EARLY CHRISTIANITY Roman repression
Peter and Paul both executed in Rome by Nero in 67 CE
Romans followed very tolerant policy: pay taxes, do not revolt
Christians refused to worship emperor, state gods = treason
Romans worried that Christians were anti-social
Some emperors persecuted Christians to increase patriotism
Christianity grew rapidly in the empire
Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women
Accorded honor and dignity to lower standing individuals
Provided a sense of spiritual freedom
Taught the spiritual equality of the sexes
Promised future glory for true believers
All converts were equal
Most influential faith in Mediterranean by the 3rd century C.E
Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece heavily Christian including many aristocrats
Influence in west limited to cities, especially Africa
Armenia, Ethiopia, Egypt were first truly Christian countries
Rome became traditional head of church but not only leader
Primus inter pares = first among equals
Petrine Doctrine = Peter the first pope and head of the Church

93. CHRISTIANITY & ROME