1. Chapter 7 Human Memory

2. Table of Contents Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory? Memory timeline –Short term – recent? –Long term – remote? –Operational definitions

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4. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention = selection of input –Filtering: early or late? – Multitasking – issues of driving performance and cell phone use – study by Strayer and Johnson (2001) –

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6. Divided attention and driving performance – Strayer & Johnson (2001)

7. Table of Contents Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972) Incoming information processed at different levels: F Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels: –Structural = shallow –Phonemic = intermediate –Semantic = deep –Study results –

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9. Retention at three levels of processing – Craik & Tulving (1975)

10. Table of Contents Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding –Thinking of examples Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered –Easier for concrete objects: Dual- coding theory – Paivio et al. (1968) >>>>>>>>>>> Self-Referent Encoding –Making information personally meaningful

11. Table of Contents Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories – Atkinson & Shiffrin (1977) –Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

12. Table of Contents Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second –George Sperling (1960) Classic experiment on visual sensory store Partial report procedure –

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14. Short Term Memory (STM) Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 –Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal –Peterson and Peterson (1959) – –Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

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16. Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay Baddeley (2001) – 4 components of working memory –Phonological rehearsal loop –Visuospatial sketchpad –Executive control system –Episodic buffer

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18. Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity Penfield’s neural stimulation – p. 284 – data was reinterpreted Permanent storage? –Flashbulb memories –Brown and Kulick (1977) – study of assassinations –Talarico & Rubin (2003) –9-11 study –Recall through hypnosis Debate: are STM and LTM really different? –Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding –Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

19. Table of Contents How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies – Schemas and Scripts – Shank & Abelson (1977) Semantic Networks – Collins & Loftus (1975) – Connectionist Networks and PDP Models – McClelland and colleagues - pattern of activity – neuron based model

20. Table of Contents A semantic network..

21. Table of Contents Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval –Retrieval cues – Brown & McNeil (1966) study – resolve block 57% of the time with first letter of failed to retrieve word Recalling an event –Context cues – Godden & Baddeley (1975) – context- dependent memory study with scuba divers –Bartlett memory research – War of the Ghosts – Reconstructing memories – Loftus studies –Loftus & Palmer (1974) I: smashed (40.8); collided (39.3); bumped (38.1); hit (34.0); contacted (31.8) II: smashed (32%) hit (14%) control (12%) (broken glass?)Loftus & Palmer (1974) –Misinformation effect Source monitoring, reality monitoring cryptomnesia

22. Table of Contents Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

23. Table of Contents Seven Sins of Memory – Daniel L. Schacter Transience – loss of memory over time Absent Mindedness – breakdown of interface between attention & memory Blocking – thwarted search for information to retrieve Bias – influence of current knowledge and belief on how we remember our past Misattribution – assigning a memory to the wrong source Suggestibility – memories implanted as a result of leading questions, comments or suggestions when a person is trying to recall a past experience Persistence – repeated recall of disturbing information or events that one may want to forget

24. Table of Contents Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Retention – the proportion of material retained – –Recall –Recognition –Relearning Hill of reminiscence – time frame of remembering

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27. Why Do We Forget? Ineffective Encoding Decay theory Interference theory –Type of material –Proactive –Retroactive

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30. Retrieval Failure Encoding Specificity Transfer-Appropriate Processing Repression and the memory wards - –Authenticity of repressed memories? –Memory illusions –Controversy  False memories – Roediger & McDermott (1995) procedure –  Loftus & Pickrell’s (1995) lost-in-the-mall study Loftus & Pickrell’s (1995)

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32. The Physiology of Memory Biochemistry –Alteration in synaptic transmission Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems Protein synthesis Neural circuitry –Localized neural circuits Reusable pathways in the brain Long-term potentiation – changes in postsynaptic neuron Anatomy –Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia – –case of H.M. – resection in 1953 - Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus, Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

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35. Are There Multiple Memory Systems? Implicit vs. Explicit Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic Prospective vs. Retrospective –

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37. Retrospective versus prospective memory

38. Table of Contents Improving Everyday Memory Engage in adequate rehearsal – overlearning Testing effect –– Roediger & Karpick (2006) Serial position effects – Distribute practice and minimize interference - Emphasize deep processing and transfer- appropriate processing Organize information Encoding specificity – vary location of studying Use verbal mnemonics – narrative stories – >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Use visual mnemonics – method of Loci – Akira Haraguchi, 60, needed more than (10/3/2006) 16 hours to recite pi (π) to 100,000 decimal places, breaking his personal best of 83,431 digits set in 2005.

39. Table of Contents Eyewitness Accounts Use of Eyewitness in court cases – Cutler & Penrod (1995), Loftus (1993) What did Jennifer See? Post information distortion Source confusion Hindsight bias Overconfidence