1. Table of Contents Chapter 7 Human Memory

2. Table of Contents Figure 7.1 – Nickerson & Adams (1979) – Which is the correct penny?

3. Table of Contents Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory? Memory timeline

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5. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Selective attention = selection of input –Filtering: early or late? Multitasking – issues of driving performance and cell phone use – study by Strayer and Johnson (2001)

6. Table of Contents You pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah. You have to pay attention to get info into your working memory Encoding is effective when…

7. Table of Contents Figure 7.4 Divided attention and driving performance – Strayer & Johnson (2001)

8. Table of Contents Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972) Incoming information processed at different levels Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels: –Structural = shallow –Phonemic = intermediate –Semantic = deep

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10. Figure 7.6 – Retention at three levels of processing – Craik & Tulving (1975)

11. Table of Contents Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding –Thinking of examples Self-Referent Encoding Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered –Easier for concrete objects Figure 7.7

12. Table of Contents We remember what we are interested in… Can you remember my phone number?

13. Table of Contents Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories – Atkinson & Shiffrin (1977) –Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term xx 7.8

14. Table of Contents Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second –George Sperling (1960) Classic experiment on visual sensory store Partial report procedure

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16. Table of Contents Short Term Memory (STM) Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 –Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal –Peterson and Peterson (1959) –Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

17. Table of Contents Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay Baddeley (2001) – 4 components of working memory –Phonological rehearsal loop –Visuospatial sketchpad –Executive control system –Episodic buffer

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19. Table of Contents Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity Penfield’s neural stimulation Permanent storage? –Flashbulb memories –Brown and Kulick (1977) – study of assassinations –Talarico & Rubin (2003) –Recall through hypnosis Debate: are STM and LTM really different? –Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding –Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

20. Table of Contents How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies Schemas and Scripts – Shank & Abelson (1977) Semantic Networks – Collins & Loftus (1975) Connectionist Networks and PDP Models – McClelland and colleagues - pattern of activity – neuron based model

21. Table of Contents Figure 7.14 A semantic network..

22. Table of Contents Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval –Retrieval cues Recalling an event –Context cues Reconstructing memories – Loftus studies –Loftus & Palmer (1974) – I: smashed (40.8); collided (39.3); bumped (38.1); hit (34.0); contacted (31.8) II: smashed (32%) hit (14%) control (12%) (broken glass?)Loftus & Palmer (1974) –Misinformation effect Source monitoring, reality monitoring cryptomnesia

23. Table of Contents Seven Sins of Memory – Daniel L. Schacter Transience – loss of memory over time Absent Mindedness – breakdown of interface between attention & memory Blocking – thwarted search for information to retrieve Bias – influence of current knowledge and belief on how we remember our past Misattribution – assigning a memory to the wrong source Suggestibility – memories implanted as a result of leading questions, comments or suggestions when a person is trying to recall a past experience Persistence – repeated recall of disturbing information or events that one may want to forget

24. Table of Contents Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Retention – the proportion of material retained –Recall –Recognition –Relearning Hill of reminiscence – time frame of remembering

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27. Table of Contents Why Do We Forget? Ineffective Encoding Decay theory Interference theory –Type of material –Proactive –Retroactive

28. Table of Contents Retrieval Failure Encoding Specificity Transfer-Appropriate Processing Repression and the memory wards Authenticity of repressed memories? –Memory illusions –Controversy  False memories  Loftus & Pickrell’s (1995) lost-in-the-mall study

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30. Table of Contents The Physiology of Memory Biochemistry –Alteration in synaptic transmission Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems Protein synthesis Neural circuitry –Localized neural circuits Reusable pathways in the brain Long-term potentiation – changes in postsynaptic neuron Anatomy –Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia –Clive WearingClive Wearing Figure 7.23 - Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus, Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

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33. Table of Contents Are There Multiple Memory Systems? Implicit vs. Explicit Declarative vs. Procedural Semantic vs. Episodic Prospective vs. Retrospective

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35. Table of Contents Figure 7.26 – Retrospective versus prospective memory

36. Table of Contents Eyewitness Accounts Use of Eyewitness in court cases – Cutler & Penrod (1995), Loftus (1993) Post information distortion Source confusion Hindsight bias Overconfidence