1. Biochemistry= The Chemistry of Life
All life functions/ process are based on the
chemical reactions in our bodies!
An Element:
These are single substances which cannot be broken down any more. there are 110 different
elements that are known to man.

2. The four most common elements in living things are:
1) Carbon
2) Hydrogen
3) Oxygen
4) Nitrogen
Black = Carbon; Yellow = Hydrogen; Red = Oxygen
These four elements make up 96% of the human body

3. Each element is identified by one or two letter abbreviation called a symbol
Carbon- C

4. Trace Elements What are they?
An element needed in small quantities for proper growth and development
Examples: copper, zinc, iron
How do plants and animals obtain them?
Found in proteins, minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates

5. Atoms: The building blocks of elements
An atom is the basic unit of matter.
The center of the atom is called the:
nucleus
1) Protons - Positively
charged particles
2) Neutrons - Neutral
(uncharged) particles
Electrons

6. Each element has distinct characteristics that result from the
number of electrons in the nuclei of atoms
3) Electrons – Negatively charged particles

7. Isotopes
Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons but may contain different numbers of
Neutrons

8. Biochemistry
Compounds –
These are two or more elements combined.
These elements are bonded together.
Ex). Molecular model
of water. It is
a compound because
there are three
elements bonded
together.

9. Biochemistry
Covalent Bonding - The elements share atoms to
form a molecule.

10. Biochemistry
Ionic Bonding - The atoms transfer the electrons. The
atoms acquire a charge and then become ions.

11. Ions and ionic bonding What is meant by the term ion? ION
is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge

12. Mixtures and Solutions
Mixture- the mixing of compounds and elements without changing their properties or makeup.
Solution- a uniform mixture of two or more substances (these substances dissolve the other substance)

13. Acids and Bases
pH scale- a scale which describes how acidic or basic a solution is
Acid- a compound that donates H+ ions to a solution (0-6 on the pH scale)
Base- a compound that removes H+ ions from a solution (8-14 on the pH scale)

15. Formula - A formula shows the ratio of elements, or the
structure of the compounds. There are two types of
formulas:
1) Empirical Formula - This shows the symbols of the
elements, followed by a numerical subscript which
identifies the ratio of the atoms.
Ex: H2O means there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom

16. H2O2 = two hydrogen and two oxygen
How many of each is in a molecule of sugar?
C6H12O6
6 Carbon
12 Hydrogen
6 Oxygen

17. Biochemistry
Structural Formula - This formula shows how the atoms
are arranged (its structure!!).
For example, sugar
C6H12O6 looks like this.

18. Biochemistry
Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula C6 H12O6, but they have different structural formulas

19. Inorganic Compounds – Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen.
They may contain one or the other, but they don't contain both.
Examples of inorganic
compounds:
Water - H2O
Acids - HCl
Salts - NaCl
CO2
Bases - NaOH
*** Water is essential for life functions of cells.
It is a solvent for other substances to dissolve in.
Most chemical reactions occur only in water solutions

20. Biochemistry
Organic compounds - These are formed in nature by
activities of living organisms.
***They always contain both carbon and hydrogen.
Carbon is special because
it can form 4 covalent
bonds while most others
can only form 2 bonds.
Therefore, it can form
long chains and rings.
Count the number of bonds to carbon

21. Biochemistry
Enzymes - ALL enzymes are proteins!!!
Enzymes control chemical reactions. They help the
reactions to occur, but they are not changed or used
up in the reaction!!!
Therefore, they can be used over and over again (although,
eventually, they do break down (disintegrate) over time).
***Enzymes are classified as catalysts.
Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of a
reaction, but are not changed.
Name of enzymes:
Enzymes end in the letters "ASE" (KNOW THIS!!!)
They are usually named after the substrate that it acts upon

22. Biochemistry
Structure of Enzymes:
1) They are proteins - so they are made up of? ____
Amino acids!!
2) They may have a non-protein coat called a co-enzyme
The coenzyme helps the enzyme function properly and
without it, some enzymes may not be able to function at
all. Vitamins act as coenzymes.
3) Enzymes have an active site. This is where enzyme
action occurs. The enzymes are usually bigger than
the molecules that they act upon.

23. Biochemistry
4) Enzyme-substrate complex -
The enzyme forms a temporary
association with the substances
whose reaction it controls.
Active
Site
The point where contact
is made is called the
active site
The substance acted
upon is called the
substrate
After the reaction is over, the
enzyme separates from the substrate
and may be used elsewhere.

24. Biochemistry
Which is the enzyme and which is the substrate? How do you
know? What kind of reaction is this?
The enzyme does not get changed in
this reaction - therefore it is the green
one. Another clue is that it is bigger
than the substrate.
This is a hydrolysis reaction because the
substrate is being broken down

26. Biochemistry
"Lock and Key" Model -
A lock has a specific shape. Only one specific key will
open that lock. This model is used to describe how
enzymes work - their shape has to fit the substrate,
otherwise, the enzyme will not work on the substrate.
Notice
how they
fit together,
like a lock
and a key

27. Biochemistry
Hydrolysis with enzyme
action

28. Biochemistry
Dehydration
synthesis of
product with
use of an
enzyme

29. Biochemistry
Dehydration synthesis of a product with enzyme

30. Biochemistry
Chemical Nature of Enzymes
1) Rate of enzyme action
The rate varies with conditions in the cellular environment:
There are 3 factors that affect the rate of enzyme actions
a) pH level (acidic or basic)
b) Temperature
c) How much (concentration) of enzyme OR
substrate is available.

31. a) pH. pH is measured on a scale of 0-14. The low
Biochemistry
a) pH. pH is measured on a scale of The low
end is acidic. The high end is basic. 7 is neutral (middle)
(7)
moder-
ately
acidic
strongly
acidic
slightly
basic
moderately
basic
strongly
basic
slightly
acidic
neutral
How to remember if a pH is acidic or basic: go from left to right
when you read - low numbers on left, high numbers on right
Alphabet: "A" is left of "B" - low numbers are acidic, high
numbers are basic

32. Biology

33. Biochemistry
Each enzyme acts most effectively within a certain pH range
Ex: Pepsin (found in your stomach) works best in acidic
conditions. Your stomach is very acidic. Would pepsin
work in your mouth?
B) Temperature
The rate of the reaction is generally slow at low temperatures.
As the temperature increases, so does the rate of the reaction,
but only up to a point!! If the temperature gets too high,
then the shape of the enzyme changes and no longer functions.

34. Biochemistry
When an
enzyme's
shape is
changed due
to high
temperatures,
it is said
to be
denatured.
They can't
fit into the
substrate
any more.

35. Biochemistry
**** Human enzymes become denatured at temperatures
near 400 C which is a few degrees above body temperature
Human body temperature is 370 C
C) Relative amount (aka: concentration) of enzyme
or substrate
The rate of the enzyme activity will increase as the
amount of substrate increases, but only up to a point.
The rate levels off as more substrate is added (because
you only have so much enzyme available to work on the
substrate)

36. Biochemistry

37. There are 4 major kinds of organic compounds found in living things:
Biochemistry
There are 4 major kinds of organic compounds
found in living things:
1) Carbohydrates
2) Proteins
3) Lipids (Fats)
4) Nucleic Acids

38. 1) Carbohydrates - These
are compounds that are
made up of C, H & O.
The elements are usually
in a ratio of 2(H) : 1(O)
Ex: C6H12O6
12:6 = 2:1
There are 3 types of carbohydrates:
A) Monosaccharides Mono = 1
B) Disaccharides Di = 2
C) Polysaccharides Poly = 3 or more
A) Monosaccharides These are simple sugars. They
usually end in the letters "ose" - glucose, fructose,
galactose etc. These have the molecular formula of
C6H12O6

39. Biochemistry
B) Disaccharides - These are carbohydrates made up of
2 simple sugars put together.
Ex: Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose
Sucrose
is two
glucose
molecules
put
together

40. Biochemistry
C)Polysaccharaides: These are carbohydrates made
up of many sugar units synthesized into long chains called
polymers.
Examples: starches, cellulose etc.

41. Dehydration Synthesis
2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen are missing - in order to put
these two molecules together, a water molecule must
be taken out. This process is called dehydration synthesis
(dehydration = lose water)
(synthesis = put together)

42. Biochemistry
Hydrolysis - This is the opposite process of dehydration
synthesis. It is when you add water to a compound and
the compounds separate (break down) Hydro = water
Lysis = break up

43. Biochemistry
2) Proteins - Proteins contain C, H, O, and N. They may
also contain sulfur. They are used to make cell
structures such as the membrane as well as other things
*** All enzymes are proteins!!
*** Many hormones are proteins

44. Biochemistry
Amino Acids- building blocks
The units which make up proteins are called
You will learn this also as "the building
blocks of proteins" An amino acid has two distinct
parts:
1) an amino group 2) a carboxyl group O H N
- C OH
Amino Group
Carboxyl Group
COOH

45. Biochemistry
Every amino acid has both of these groups (amino group
and carboxyl group). However, each amino acid is
different by what is between the two groups. The
different group in the middle vary, and are represented
by the letter "R"

50. A protein consists of many of these amino acid units
linked together. They are linked together (synthesized)
by the process of???????? __________________
Dehydration Synthesis

51. Dehydration Synthesis of a protein
Dipeptide
(AKA: Protein)

52. Polypeptide (AKA: Protein)

53. A protein with many amino acids linked together
AKA: Polypeptide

54. 3) Lipids - These are fats and oils (ask me about a fat lip)
Lipids are made of C, H< O, but are in a different ratio
than carbohydrates.
The H:O ratio is greater than 2:1 lipids are used for:
1) Stored Energy
2) Cell Structures (cell membranes)
3) Cushioning Organs

55. Biochemistry
A lipid consists of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol 1
glycerol
3 fatty
acids

56. Biochemistry
A lipid is made by the process of dehydration synthesis
of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule.
Fluid-
Mosaic
Model of
Cell
Membrane

57. 4) Nucleic Acids- dna AND RNA
1. DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid
Building blocks are nucleotides
Nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, sugar and a nitrogenous base
DNA holds all of our genetic information
2. RNA- is the single stranded messenger molecule made by DNA to leave the nucleus to make an amino acid

58. Indicators! To test for monosaccarides, simple sugars!
Example: glucose
Benedicts solution is blue
add heat, will turn orange for a + result
To test for polysaccarides, starches
Example: potatoes
Use Iodine; a amber/ brown in color
Will turn dark blue/ black in presence of starch, a + result!

59. To test for proteins, amino acids -use biuret indicator; blue in color
Example: peanuts, chicken
-use biuret indicator; blue in color
-Will turn purple/ lavender for +
To test for lipids, oils, waxes
Example: butter, vegetable oil
Use brown paper bag/ paper towel
If translucent, a positive test for lipids