1. 1 Animation

2. 2 Biochemistry Biochemistry = the chemistry of life Elements - These are single substances which cannot be broken down any more. there are 110 different elements that are known to man.

3. 3 Biochemistry The four most common elements in living things are: 1) Carbon 2) Hydrogen 3) Oxygen 4) Nitrogen Black = Carbon; Yellow = Hydrogen; Red = Oxygen

4. 4 Biochemistry Each element contains atoms. Each atom has a structure which is called the atomic structure. The atomic structure includes: 1) Protons - Positively charged particles 2) Neutrons - Neutral (uncharged) particles 3) Electrons - Negatively charged particles Electrons

5. 5 Biochemistry Each element has a specific number of electrons which are distinctly arranged in the shell First shell - 2 electrons Second shell - 8 electrons A stable atom will have 8 electrons in the outer shell (or, if there's only one shell, a stable atom would have 2 electrons)

6. 6 Biochemistry Is this a stable atom? Why or why not?

7. 7 Biochemistry Compounds - These are two or more elements combined. These elements are bonded together. There are two types of bonds which may be used to link elements together. Molecular model of water. It is a compound because there are three elements bonded together.

8. 8 Biochemistry Ionic Bonding - The atoms transfer the electrons. The atoms acquire a charge and then become ions.

9. 9 Biochemistry Covalent Bonding - The elements share atoms to form a molecule.

10. 10 Biochemistry Formula - A formula shows the ratio of elements, or the structure of the compounds. There are two types of formulas: 1) Empirical Formula - This shows the symbols of the elements, followed by a numerical subscript which identifies the ratio of the atoms. Ex: H 2 O means there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (if nothing is written after the letter, it is understood that there is only one there).

11. 11 Biochemistry H 2 O 2 = two hydrogen and two oxygen How many of each is in a molecule of sugar? C 6 H 12 O 6 6 Carbon 12 Hydrogen 6 Oxygen

12. 12 Biochemistry Structural Formula - This formula shows how the atoms are arranged (its structure!!). For example, sugar C 6 H 12 O 6 looks like this.

13. 13 Biochemistry Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula C 6 H 12 O 6, but they have different structural formulas

14. 14 Biochemistry Inorganic Compounds - These do not contain both carbon and hydrogen. They may contain one or the other, but they don't contain both. Examples of inorganic compounds: Water - H 2 O Salts - NaCl Acids - HCl Bases - NaOH *** Water is essential for life functions of cells. It is a solvent for other substances to dissolve in. Most chemical reactions occur only in water solutions CO 2

15. 15 Biochemistry Organic compounds - These are formed in nature by activities of living organisms. ***They always contain both carbon and hydrogen. Carbon is special because it can form 4 covalent bonds while most others can only form 2 bonds. Therefore, it can form long chains and rings. Count the number of bonds to carbon

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17. 17 Biochemistry There are 4 major kinds of organic compounds found in living things: 1) Carbohydrates2) Proteins 3) Lipids (Fats)4) Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates - These are compounds that are made up of C, H & O. The elements are usually in a ratio of 2(H) : 1(O) Ex: C 6 H 12 O 6 12:6 = 2:1

18. 18 Biochemistry There are 3 types of carbohydrates: A) Monosaccharides Mono = 1 B) DisaccharidesDi = 2 C) PolysaccharidesPoly = 3 or more A) Monosaccharides These are simple sugars. They usually end in the letters "ose" - glucose, fructose, galactose etc. These have the molecular formula of C 6 H 12 O 6

19. 19 Biochemistry B) Disaccharides - These are carbohydrates made up of 2 simple sugars put together. Ex: Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose Sucrose is two glucose molecules put together

20. 20 Biochemistry If you put two glucose molecules together (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), how many C's H's and O's should you have Actually, the formula is C 12 H 22 O 11 Why?

21. 21 Biochemistry 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen are missing - in order to put these two molecules together, a water molecule must be taken out. This process is called dehydration synthesis (dehydration = lose water) (synthesis = put together)

22. 22 Biochemistry Animation of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

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25. 25 Biochemistry Hydrolysis - This is the opposite process of dehydration synthesis. It is when you add water to a compound and the compounds separate (break down) Hydro = water Lysis = break up

26. 26 Biochemistry Polysaccharaides: These are carbohydrates made up of many sugar units synthesized into long chains called polymers. The units may be the same, or they may be different. Examples: starches, cellulose etc.

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28. 28 Biochemistry Proteins - Proteins contain C, H, O, and N. They may also contain sulfur. They are used to make cell structures such as the membrane as well as other things *** All enzymes are proteins!! *** Many hormones are proteins

29. 29 Biochemistry The units which make up proteins are called amino acids. You will learn this also as "the building blocks of proteins" An amino acid has two distinct parts: 1) an amino group 2) a carboxyl group H N H - C O OH Amino Group Carboxyl Group COOH

30. 30 Every amino acid has both of these groups (amino group and carboxyl group). However, each amino acid is different by what is between the two groups. The different group in the middle vary, and are represented by the letter "R" Biochemistry

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35. 35 Biochemistry A protein consists of many of these amino acid units linked together. They are linked together (synthesized) by the process of???????? __________________ Dehydration Synthesis

36. 36 Dehydration Synthesis of a protein Dipeptide (AKA: Protein)

37. 37 Biochemistry Polypeptide (AKA: Protein)

38. 38 Biochemistry A protein with many amino acids linked together AKA: Polypeptide

39. 39 Biochemistry A protein has 1 or more chains of amino acids. They may be folded, twisted or coiled.

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42. 42 Biochemistry Lipids - These are fats and oils (ask me about a fat lip) Lipids are made of C, H< O, but are in a different ratio than carbohydrates. The H:O ratio is greater than 2:1 lipids are used for: 1) Stored Energy 2) Cell Structures (cell membranes) 3) Cushioning Organs C 12 H 24 O 2 24:2 12:1 H:O Ratio Carbohydrate Lipid 2:1 >2:1

43. 43 Biochemistry A lipid consists of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol 1 glycerol 3 fatty acids

44. 44 Biochemistry A lipid is made by the process of dehydration synthesis of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule. Fluid- Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane

45. 45 Biochemistry Enzymes - ALL enzymes are proteins!!! Enzymes control chemical reactions. They help the reactions to occur, but they are not changed or used up in the reaction!!! Therefore, they can be used over and over again (although, eventually, they do break down (disintegrate) over time). ***Enzymes are classified as catalysts. Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of a reaction, but are not changed.

46. 46 Biochemistry Structure of Enzymes: 1) They are proteins - so they are made up of? ____ 2) They may have a non-protein coat called a co-enzyme The coenzyme helps the enzyme function properly and without it, some enzymes may not be able to function at all. Vitamins act as coenzymes. 3) Enzymes have an active site. This is where enzyme action occurs. The enzymes are usually bigger than the molecules that they act upon. Amino acids!!

47. 47 Biochemistry 4) Enzyme-substrate complex - The enzyme forms a temporary association with the substances whose reaction it controls. Active Site The substance acted upon is called the substrate The point where contact is made is called the active site After the reaction is over, the enzyme separates from the substrate and may be used elsewhere.

48. 48 Biochemistry Which is the enzyme and which is the substrate? How do you know? What kind of reaction is this? The enzyme does not get changed in this reaction - therefore it is the green one. Another clue is that it is bigger than the substrate. This is a hydrolysis reaction because the substrate is being broken down

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51. 51 Biochemistry "Lock and Key" Model - A lock has a specific shape. Only one specific key will open that lock. This model is used to describe how enzymes work - their shape has to fit the substrate, otherwise, the enzyme will not work on the substrate. Notice how they fit together, like a lock and a key

52. 52 Biochemistry Hydrolysis with enzyme action

53. 53 Biochemistry Dehydration synthesis of product with use of an enzyme

54. 54 Biochemistry Dehydration synthesis of a product with enzyme

55. 55 Biochemistry 6) Replacement of Enzymes Enzymes are only around for a limited time because they do decompose at some point. Therefore, organisms must synthesize enzymes continuously. The DNA of the cell has the "blueprint" for making enzymes. 7) Name of enzymes: Enzymes end in the letters "ASE" (KNOW THIS!!!) They are usually named after the substrate that it acts upon Ex: Maltase works on maltoseLipase works on lipids This is not always true - salivary amylase works on carbohydrates

56. 56 Biochemistry Chemical Nature of Enzymes 1) Rate of enzyme action The rate varies with conditions in the cellular environment: There are 3 factors that affect the rate of enzyme actions a) pH level (acidic or basic)b) Temperature c) How much (concentration) of enzyme OR substrate is available.

57. 57 Biochemistry a) pH. pH is measured on a scale of 0-14. The low end is acidic. The high end is basic. 7 is neutral (middle) 0-1 2 3 4 5 6 (7) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 strongly acidic moder- ately acidic slightly acidic neutral slightly basic moderately basic strongly basic How to remember if a pH is acidic or basic: go from left to right when you read - low numbers on left, high numbers on right Alphabet: "A" is left of "B" - low numbers are acidic, high numbers are basic

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59. 59 Biochemistry Each enzyme acts most effectively within a certain pH range Ex: Pepsin (found in your stomach) works best in acidic conditions. Your stomach is very acidic. Would pepsin work in your mouth? B) Temperature The rate of the reaction is generally slow at low temperatures. As the temperature increases, so does the rate of the reaction, but only up to a point!! If the temperature gets too high, then the shape of the enzyme changes and no longer functions.

60. 60 Biochemistry When an enzyme's shape is changed due to high temperatures, it is said to be denatured. They can't fit into the substrate any more.

61. 61 Biochemistry **** Human enzymes become denatured at temperatures near 40 0 C which is a few degrees above body temperature Human body temperature is 37 0 C C) Relative amount (aka: concentration) of enzyme or substrate The rate of the enzyme activity will increase as the amount of substrate increases, but only up to a point. The rate levels off as more substrate is added (because you only have so much enzyme available to work on the substrate)

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63. 63 Biochemistry Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is the process where chemical bond energy in food is converted to a form of useable energy. ** Chemical energy is always called ATP (which stands for Adenosine Triphosphate). Tri = 3 (3 phosphates) ATP is released by the process of hydrolysis The reaction is controlled by the enzyme "ATP-ase"

64. 64 Biochemistry H 2 O + ATP ATP-ase ADP + Energy This formula may be reversed (that is why there are two arrows in different directions) The arrow pointing to the right is ? Hydrolysis The arrow pointing to the left is?Dehydration synthesis

65. 65 Biochemistry There are 2 types of cellular respiration: 1) Aerobic Respiration - Free oxygen is used 2) Anaerobic Respiration - Free oxygen is not used

66. 66 Aerobic Respiration C 6 H 12 O 6 6 H 2 O+6 CO 2 +36 ATP Glucose is broken down into CO 2 and H 2 O Bond energy is released gradually. Why? Energy released too quickly would be too much for the cell to handle. Usually 36 molecules of ATP is released for every molecule of glucose used. 36 ATP is very important - remember it!! Enzymes + 6O 2

67. 67 Aerobic Respiration This equation is balanced because all of the numbers on the left of the arrow equal the numbers on the right of the arrow C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 --------> 6 H 2 O + 6 CO 2 C's on left = ____? H's on left = ____? O's on left = ____? C's on right = _____? H's on right = _____? O's on right = _____? 6 12 18 6 12 18

68. 68 Aerobic Respiration There are 2 phases of aerobic respiration: 1) The first phase is anaerobic (no oxygen is present) It occurs in the cytoplasm just outside of the mitochondria. When glucose is broken down, it's called glycolysis Glucose -----------> Pyruvic acid + 2 ATP is broken down into

69. 69 Aerobic Respiration 2) The second phase is aerobic (oxygen present) Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria Pyruvic acid is oxidized (loses H atoms) 34 Molecules of ATP are produced CO 2 and H 2 O are produced as waste products There is a net gain of 36 molecules of ATP (2 from phase 1 and 34 from phase 2).

70. 70 Aerobic Respiration Glucose + 2 ATP -------> 2 Pyruvic acid + 2 ATP (Phase 1) (Cytoplasm) 2 Pyruvic acid + O 2 ---------> CO 2 + H 2 O + 34 ATP (Phase 2) (Mitochondria) Net output : 36 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose

71. 71 Anaerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration (AKA: Fermentation) is done without free oxygen present. Organisms that carry out anaerobic respiration: YeastBacteria Your muscle cells (sometimes)

72. 72 Anaerobic Respiration The end products of anaerobic respiration vary depending on the type of organism that is carrying out the anaerobic respiration!!!! Yeast: Glucose ----------> 2 Alcohol + 2 CO 2 + 2 ATP Bacteria & Muscle Cells Glucose --------> 2 Lactic Acid + 2 ATP CO 2 is what makes the dough rise!!!

73. 73 Aerobic Vs. Anaerobic AerobicAnaerobic 36 ATP Produced2 ATP Produced Oxygen on left of arrowNo Oxygen anywhere! Carbon Dioxide, Water & 36 ATP are products Carbon Dioxide, Lactic Acid OR Alcohol are the products. NO WATER is produced Plants & AnimalsYeast, Bacteria or Muscle Cells

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