1. To be used with Biochemistry Guided Notes

2. Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
Contains Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) (Example: C6H12O6)
Does not contain C, H, and O at same time (Example: H20)
Carbon is the key element—the element of life
Water: makes up 60 to 98% of living things—necessary for chemical activities and transport
Carbon can bond with itself and form many times for bonds (single, double, triple and rings)
Salts: help maintain water balance
Example: Gatorade—electrolytes
4 Organic Molecules:
Carbohydrates Lipids
Nucleic Acids Proteins
Acids and Bases: -pH Scale -Important for enzyme function

3. Carbohydrates End in -ose Sugars and complex carbohydrates (starches)
Contain the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (the hydrogen is in a 2:1 ratio to oxygen)
End in -ose

4. Monosaccharides Simple sugars All have the formula C6H12O6
Have a single ring structure
Example: Glucose

5. Disaccharides Double sugars All have the formula C12H22O11
Example: sucrose (table sugar)

6. Polysaccharides Three or more simple sugar units Examples:
Glycogen: animal starch stored in the liver and muscles
Cellulose: indigestible in humans: forms cell wall in plants
Starches: used as energy storage

7. How are complex carbohydrates formed?
Dehydration synthesis: combining simple molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water
Example:
monosaccharide + monosaccharide  disaccharide + water
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6  C12H22O11 + H2O
polysaccharides are formed from repeated dehydration synthesis

8. Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide 

9. Disaccharide
+ Water

10. How are complex carbohydrates broken down?
Hydrolysis: the addition of water to a compound to split it into smaller subunits
also called chemical digestion
Example:
disaccharide + water  monosaccharide + monosaccharide
C12H22O11 + H2O  C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

11. Lipids
Lipids (Fats): lipids chiefly function in energy storage, protection, and insulation
contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but the H:O is not in a 2:1 ratio
Examples: fats, oils, waxes, steroids
Lipids tend to be large molecules

12. Lipids Lipids are formed from one glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids
3 fatty acids + glycerol lipid (fat)

13. 4 Types of Lipids Fats: from animals
Saturated: solid at room temperature
All single bonds in the fatty acid tail
Very difficult to break down

14. 4 Types of Lipids 2. Oils: from plants
Unsaturated: liquid at room temperature
Presence of a double bond in the fatty acid tail
Ex. Vegetable oils

15. Four Types of Lipids
3. Waxes: ear wax, bees wax 

16. 4 Types of Lipids 4. Steroids:
One important molecule that is classified in this category is cholesterol
High levels could lead to heart disease

17. Proteins Proteins: contain the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
Made at the ribosomes
Composed of amino acid subunits

18. Proteins Major Protein Functions: Usually end with -in:
Growth and repair
Energy
Usually end with -in:
Example: Hemoglobin

19. Making Proteins Dehydration synthesis of a dipeptide
Dipeptide: formed from two amino acids
amino acid + amino acid  dipeptide + water

20. Breaking down Proteins
Hydrolysis of a dipeptide
dipeptide + water  amino acid + amino acid

21. Proteins Polypeptide: composed of three or more amino acids
These are proteins
Examples: insulin, hemoglobin, and enzymes
There are a large number of different types of proteins:
The number, kind and sequence of amino acids lead to this large variety

22. Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids: present in all cells
DNA: contains the genetic
code of instructions through
the synthesis of proteins
found in the chromosomes
of the nucleus
RNA: directs protein synthesis
found in nucleus, ribosomes & cytoplasm

23. Enzymes
Catalyst: inorganic or organic substance which speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without entering the reaction itself
Examples: enzymes (organic) and heat (inorganic)
Enzymes: organic catalysts made of protein
most enzyme names end in –ase
enzymes lower the energy needed to start a chemical reaction (activation energy)

24. How enzymes work
Enzyme forms a temporary association with a the substance it affects
These substances are known as substrates.
The association between enzyme and substrate is very specific—like a Lock and Key
This association is the enzyme-substrate complex
While the enzyme-substrate complex is formed, enzyme action takes place.
Upon completion of the reaction, the enzyme and product(s) separate
The enzyme is now able to be reused

25. Enzyme-Substrate Complex

26. Enzyme Terms
Active site: the pockets in an enzyme where substrate fits
Usually enzyme is larger than substrate
Substrate: molecules upon which an enzyme acts
All enzymes are proteins
Coenzyme: non-protein part attached to the main enzyme
Example: vitamins

27. Proteins in action Lock and Key Model enzyme
substrate > product
Lock and Key Model

28. Factors Limiting Enzyme Action
pH: pH of the environment affects enzyme activity
Example: pepsin works best in a pH of 2 in stomach
Amylase works best in a pH of 6.8 in mouth--saliva

29. Factors Limiting Enzyme Action
Temperature: as the temperature increases the rate of enzymes increases
Optimum Temperature: temperature at which an enzyme is most affective
Humans it is 37 degrees C or 98.6 degrees F
Dogs between 101 and 102 F

30. When Temperatures Get Too High
Denature:
Change in their shape so the enzyme active site no longer fits with the substrate
Enzyme can't function
Above 45 C most enzymes are denatured
Why do we get a fever when we get sick?

31. General Trend vs. Denaturing

32. Factors Limiting Enzyme Action
Concentration of Enzyme and Substrate
With a fixed amount of enzyme and an excess of substrate molecules
the rate of reaction will increase to a point and then level off
Leveling off occurs because all of the enzyme is used up
Excess substrate has nothing to combine with
Add more enzyme reaction rate increases again

33. Enzyme-Substrate Concentration