1. Theories of Child Development
Jean Piaget • Lev Vygotsky Abraham Maslow • B.F. Skinner • Erik Erickson • Howard Gardner

2. Why Study Child & Parenting Development Theories?
Theories help people:
Organize their ideas about raising children.
Understand influences on parenting.
Discover more than one way to interact with children.
Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than one theory.

3. Why Study the Selected Theories?
Have been popular and influential.
Represent different approaches to parent- child interaction.
Offer help in the “real world” of daily child- rearing.
Make good common sense.

4. Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934 Main points
The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in which they interact with people influence their intellectual development. From their cultural environments, children learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will eventually pass on to their own children. Through cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process. Learning is constructed.
Main points
Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.
Key Words
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding

5. What is: Zone of Proximal Development
It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner.
There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the teacher’s assistance.
Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability to benefit from instructions.

8. What is: Scaffolding
Assistance that allows students to complete tasks that they are not able to complete independently.
Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’ needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide scaffolding by:
Breaking content into manageable pieces
Modeling skills
Provide practice and examples with prompts
Letting go when students are ready

9. Psychosocial Theory of Human Development – Erik Erikson
Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage. The way in which a person handles each of these stages affects the person’s identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are:
Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)
Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years)
Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years)
Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years)
Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years)
Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)
Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)
Psychosocial Theory of Human Development – Erik Erikson

10. Stage Age Basic Conflict Important Event Summary Oral-sensory
Birth to 12 to 18 months
Trust vs. Mistrust
Feeding
The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust.
Muscular-Anal
18 months to 3years
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Toilet training
The child's energies are directed toward the development of physical skill, including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well.
Locomotor
3 to 6 years
Initiative vs. Guilt
Independence
The child continues to become more assertive and to take more initiative, but may be too forceful, leading to guilt feelings.
Latency
6 to 12 years
Industry vs. Inferiority
School
The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure and incompetence.
Adolescence
12 to 18 years
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Peer relationships
The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics, and religion.
Young Adulthood
19 to 40 years
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Love relationships
The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation.
Middle Adulthood
40 to 65 years
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Parenting
Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation.
Maturity
65 to death
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Reflection on and acceptance of one's life
The culmination is a sense of oneself as one is and of feeling fulfilled.

11. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Industry vs. Inferiority
Initiative vs. Guilt
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Trust vs. Mistrust

12. Critique of Erik Erikson
Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.
On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed.
Most empirical research into Erikson has stemmed around his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by James E. Marcia.[1] Marcia's work has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory, in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.
On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed.

13. Theory of Behaviorism- B.F Skinner & others
Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea, Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism” --- that is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through learning experiences.
Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on cause-and-effect relationships.
Pavlo's dog game

14. Classical Conditioning
In a now classic experiment, Pavlov first performed a minor operation on a dog to relocate its salivary duct to the outside of its cheek, so that drops of saliva could be more easily measured. The dog, which was food deprived, was then harnessed in an apparatus to keep it steady in order to collect saliva. Periodically, a bell was rang, followed shortly thereafter by meat being placed in the hungry dog's mouth. Meat causes a hungry dog to salivate, whereas rings have little effect. The dog's salivation to meat is an unconditioned reflex - it is in-born, in that dogs do not have to learn to salivate when food is placed in their mouths. Initially, the dog shows little responsiveness to the bell rings. Over time, however, the dog comes to salivate at the sounding of the bell rings alone. When this occurs, Pavlovian conditioning or classical conditioning has occurred, in that a new, or conditioned, reflex has developed. This confirmed Pavlov theory that the dog had associated the bell ringing with the food.
Pavlov's Dogs

15. Major elements of behaviorism include:
Positive and negative reinforcement
Use of stimulus and response
Modeling
Conditioning.
In psychology, reinforcement refers to the procedure of presenting or removing a stimulus to maintain or increase the likelihood of a behavioral response. (A stimulus is something that causes a response.) Reinforcement is usually divided into two types: positive and negative.
If a stimulus is presented immediately after a behavior and that stimulus increases the probability that the behavior will occur again, the stimulus is called a positive reinforcer. Giving a child candy for cleaning his or her room is an example of a positive reinforcer. The child will learn to clean his or her room (behavior) more often in the future, believing he or she will receive something positive—the candy (stimulus)—in return.
Like positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior associated with it will be continued. However, a negative reinforcer is an unpleasant stimulus that is removed after a behavioral response. Negative reinforcers can range from uncomfortable physical sensations to actions causing severe physical distress. Taking aspirin for a headache is an example of negative reinforcement. If a person's headache (stimulus) goes away after taking aspirin (behavior), then it is likely that the person will take aspirin for headaches in the future.
Classical conditioning
Reinforcement as a theoretical concept in psychology can be traced back to Russian scientist Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936), who studied conditioning and learning in animals in the early 1900s. Pavlov developed the general procedures and terminology for studying what is now called classical conditioning. While studying the salivary functions of dogs, Pavlov noticed that they began to salivate just before he began to feed them. He concluded that salivating in anticipation of the food was a learned response. To further prove this theory, Pavlov conducted an experiment. Just before he gave a dog food, Pavlov rang a bell. After pairing the bell and food several times, Pavlov just rang the bell. He discovered that the sound of the bell alone was enough to make the dogs salivate.
Pavlov labeled the food an unconditional stimulus because it reliably (unconditionally) led to salivation. He called the salivation an unconditional response. The bell tone was a conditioned stimulus because the dog did not salivate in response to the bell until he had been conditioned to do so through repeated pairings with the food. The salivation in response to the bell became a conditioned response.
Classical conditioning thus occurs when a person or animal forms an association between two events. One event need not immediately follow the other. What is important is that one event predicts or brings about the other. An example of classical conditioning in humans can be seen in a trip to the dentist's office. On a person's first visit, the sound of the drill signifies nothing to that person until the dentist begins to use the drill. The pain and discomfort of having a tooth drilled is then remembered by that person on the subsequent visit. The sound of the drill is enough to produce a feeling of anxiety, tensed muscles, and sweaty palms in that person even before the dentist has begun to use the drill.
Words to Know
Classical conditioning: A type of conditioning or learning in which a stimulus that brings about a behavioral response is paired with a neutral stimulus until that neutral stimulus brings about the response by itself.
Operant conditioning: A type of conditioning or learning in which a person or animal learns to perform or not perform a particular behavior based on its positive or negative consequences.
Primary reinforcers: Stimuli such as food, water, and shelter that satisfy basic needs.
Secondary reinforcers: Stimuli that have come to provide reinforcement through their association with primary reinforcers.
Stimulus: Something that causes a behavioral response.
B.F. Skinner
Albert Bandura
Ivan Pavlov

16. Skinner Box Operant Conditioning
In classical conditioning, the learned responses are reflexes, such as salivating or sweating. The stimuli (food or a dentist's drill) bring about these responses automatically. In operant conditioning, the learned behavioral responses are voluntary. A person or animal learns to perform or not perform a particular behavior based on its positive or negative consequences.
American behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) conducted experiments during the 1930s and 1940s to prove that human and animal behavior is based not on independent motivation but on response to reward and punishment. Skinner designed an enclosed, soundproof box equipped with tools, levers, and other devices. In this box, which came to be called the Skinner box, he taught rats to push buttons, pull strings, and press levers to receive a food or water reward.
This type of procedure and the resultant conditioning have become known as operant conditioning. The term "operant" refers to behaviors that respond to, or operate on, the surrounding environment. From his experiments, Skinner developed the theory that humans are controlled (stimulated) solely by forces in their environment. Rewarded behavior (positive reinforcement) is encouraged, and unrewarded behavior (negative reinforcement) is terminated.
Operant Conditioning

18. Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner

19. Howard Gardner’s theory
Howard Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Using biological as well as cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view that usually recognizes only two intelligences, verbal and mathematical.

20. Who is Howard Gardner?
Howard Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education.
Based on his study of many people, Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner defines intelligence as “ability to solve problems or to create products which are valued in one or more cultural settings.”
According to Gardner, 8 different types of intelligence are displayed by humans.

21. Gardner’s Intelligences:

22. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
consists of the ability to:
detect patterns
reason deductively
think logically
This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey.

23. Linguistic Intelligence
involves having a mastery of language
This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically.
It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information.
Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraham Lincoln, T.S. Eliot, Sir Winston Churchill.

24. Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright
Spatial Intelligence
gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems.
This intelligence is not limited to visual domains--Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children.
Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright

25. Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.
Musical Intelligence
encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.
(Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but these functions would not be needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)
Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.

26. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements.
This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated.
The ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create products or present ideas and emotions.
An ability obviously displayed for athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in building and construction.
You can include surgeons in this category but many people who are physically talented–"good with their hands"–don't recognize that this form of intelligence is of equal value to the other intelligences.
Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

27. Interpersonal Intelligence
The ability to work effectively with others
to relate to other people
display empathy and understanding
notice their motivations and goals.
This is a vital human intelligence displayed by good teachers, facilitators, therapists, politicians, religious leaders and sales people.
Famous examples: Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, Mother Teresa, Oprah Winfrey.

28. Intrapersonal Intelligence
The ability for self-analysis and reflection–to be able to:
quietly contemplate and assess one's accomplishments
review one's behavior and innermost feelings
make plans and set goals
know oneself
Philosophers, counselors, and many peak performers in all fields of endeavor have this form of intelligence.
Famous examples: Freud, Eleanor Roosevelt, Plato.

29. Naturalist intelligence
designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations).
to make distinctions in the natural world and to use this ability productively–for example in hunting, farming, or biological science.
Farmers, botanists, conservationists, biologists, environmentalists would all display aspects of the intelligence.
Famous examples: Charles Darwin, Rachel Carson.

30. For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he/she has
Can we be more than one?
Yes!
Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that the eight intelligences very rarely operate independently.
Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems.
For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he/she has 
strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the music 
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to complete the movements successfully
interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his movements

31. Jean Piaget
The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be explained by the interaction of nature (intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic environmental factors).
Goal of cognitive development
– Biological survival
Cognitive development as biological adaptation
– Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences
– Learner as ‘the little scientist’
Knowledge originates from the environment
– Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium
– Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and construction of knowledge
Key words
Cognitive learning theory; assimilate; symbolism; accommodate; egocentric; decentre; conservatism; active learners; schemata; sensory-motor; stages; pre-operational; animism; moral realism; concrete operations; formal operations

32. Cognitive Development Theory
Two processes are essential for development:
Assimilation
Learning to understand events or objects, based on existing structure.
Accommodation
Expanding understanding, based on new information.
Jean Piaget ( )

33. Piaget
Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development skills:
Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect
Preoperational – 2-7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively
Concrete operational – 7-12 years – children learn to think logically
Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills

34. Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

36. Basic Human Needs
Food
Air
Water
Clothing
Sex
Physiological Needs

37. Safety Needs Protection Stability Pain Avoidance Routine/Order
Safety and Security
Protection
Stability
Pain Avoidance
Routine/Order
Safety Needs

38. Love and Belonging
Affection
Acceptance
Inclusion
Social Needs

39. Esteem
Esteem Needs
Self-Respect
Self-Esteem
Respected by Others

40. Self-Actualization
Achieve full potential
Fulfillment