1. X-Bar Syntax - an overview

2. Constituents again… Determine the constituent structure of the following two sentences The long hot summer which everyone loved is over It has been the best summer ever

3. [[The long hot summer which everyone loved] [is over]] [The long hot summer which everyone loved] ’The’ and ’summer’ are obligatory, the rest optional: ’Summer’ is a N, so the type of phrase projected from it is a NP: NP D The N summer Concentrate on the first constituent The D(eterminer) is said to specify (or be the specifier of) N It contains several constituents: [[The] [[long] [[hot] [[[summer]] [which everyone loved]]]]]

4. - but what do we do about all the other words in the original? They are constituents of the NP, but they are not necessary constituents So, we have to insert them in connection with N. How? Let’s try one at the time Question: Which of the two obligatory words (the and summer) do they seem to be connected with most closely? Answer: summer Test: Long, hot summers which everybody loves *The hot, long which everybody loves

5. ?D The N summer NP Long and hot are Adjectives (A) which everybody loves is a Relative Clause A long Adjectives and Relative Clauses are Modifiers of N

6. N´D The N summer NP (= N´´) It is the category formed by long and summer that is called an N-bar (N´) A long The (single-)bar categories, X´, are intermediate projections between the lexical level (X 0) and the phrasal level, which is also called double-bar (X´´)

7. N´ D The N summer NP (= N´´) But as you see from the original phrase, there may be more than one A and Relative Clause modifying N. A hot We say that the single-bar categories are recursive N´ A long

8. Relative Clauses are subordinate clauses usually introduced by a Relative pronoun, here which; it functions as a Comp(lementizer) and as Direct Object of loved. RC CompS NPVP whicheverybodyloved VNP Ø N´ D The NP (= N´´) A hot A long N´ summer N´ N

9. [[It][has been the best summer] [ever]] Concentrate on the second constituent [[has] [[been] [the best summer]]] All three constituents are obligatory, and been is the head word It is a V, so the phrase it projects is a VP It contains three constituents:

10. NP Aux has VP (= V´´) V´ V been the best summer Here, has is an Auxiliary, while the best summer is the Complement of V A main verb and its complements form a V´

11. Maximal generalization: Let X = {N | V | A | P | Adv} Then X 0 < *X´ < XP Rules: 1.XP => ZP; X´ 2. a.(X´ => YP; X´) 2. b.X´ => X 0 ; WP [ZP is the Specifier of X 0 ] [YP is a Modifier of X 0 ] [WP is the Complement of X 0 ] [X 0 is the Head] Rule 2.a. is optional

12. 12 X-Bar Theory X = NX = NJohn'sdestructionof the planeZP = GenP; YP = PP X = AX = Aratherdestructiveof planesZP = AdvP; YP = PP X = PX = Prightoffthe planeZP = AdvP; YP = NP Desuden: C(omplementizer) P(hrase) = (tidligere) S´ I(inflectional) P(hrase) = (tidligere) S Head Maximal projection X-bar ComplementSpecifier XP ZPX´ XYP JohnX = Vdestroyedthe planeZP = NP; YP = NP

13. (X´) ZP XP (= X´´) X´ (YP) Generalized Phrase Structure X0X0 WP ComplementHead Modifier Specifier Modifiers may precede or follow the Head, depending on type

14. However…. (N´ | V´) ZP NP | VP N´ | V´ (YP) N 0 | V 0 WP ComplementHead Modifier Specifier WP (ZP) PP | AP (P´ | A´) P 0 | A 0 ComplementHead Modifier Only N and V clearly show the full structure P and A (and Adv) often lack the Specifier level