1. Linguistics Lecture-12: X-bar Theory; Adjuncts and Complements
Pushpak Bhattacharyya,
CSE Department,
IIT Bombay
February 28th, 2009
(main text: Syntax by Adrew Carnie, Blackwell Publication, 2002)

2. How deep should a tree be?
Is there a principle in branching
When should the constituent give rise to children?
What is the hierarchy building principle?

3. Deeper trees needed for capturing sentence structure
This wont do!
Flat structure! NP PP
The AP PP
book
with the blue cover
of poems
big
[The big book of poems with the
Blue cover] is on the table.

4. Other languages English NP PP The AP PP book with the blue cover big
of poems NP
Hindi AP PP PP
kitaab
kavita kii
niil jilda vaalii
badii
[niil jilda vaalii kavita kii kitaab]

5. Other languages: contd
English NP PP
The AP PP
book
with the blue cover
big
of poems NP
Bengali AP PP PP ti
bai
kavitar
niil malaat deovaa
motaa
[niil malaat deovaa kavitar bai ti]

6. PPs are at the same level: flat with respect to the head word “book”
No distinction in terms of dominance or c-command NP PP
The AP PP
book
with the blue cover
of poems
big
[The big book of poems with the
Blue cover] is on the table.

7. “Constituency test of Replacement” runs into problems
One-replacement:
I bought the big [book of poems with the blue cover] not the small [one]
One-replacement targets book of poems with the blue cover
Another one-replacement:
I bought the big [book of poems] with the blue cover not the small [one] with the red cover
One-replacement targets book of poems

8. More deeply embedded structureNP
N’1
The AP
N’2
N’3
big PP N
book
with the blue cover PP
of poems

9. To target N1’
I want [NPthis [N’big book of poems with the red cover] and not [Nthat [None]]

10. Bar-level projections
Add intermediate structures
NP (D) N’
N’ (AP) N’ | N’ (PP) | N (PP)
() indicates optionality

11. New rules produce this treeNP
N-bar
N’1
The AP
N’2
N’3
big PP N
book
with the blue cover PP
of poems

12. As opposed to this tree NP PP The AP PP book with the blue cover
of poems
big

13. V-bar
What is the element in verbs corresponding to one-replacement for nouns
do-so or did-so

14. As opposed to this tree NP PP The AP PP book with the blue cover
of poems
big

15. I [eat beans with a fork]VP PP
eat NP
with a fork
beans
No constituent that groups together V and NP and excludes PP

16. Need for intermediate constituents
I [eat beans] with a fork but Ram [does so] with a spoon VP
V1’
VPV’
V’ V’ (PP)
V’ V (NP)
V2’ PP V NP
with a fork
eat
beans

17. How to target V1’ I [eat beans with a fork], and Ram [does so] too. VP
VPV’
V’ V’ (PP)
V’ V (NP)
V2’ PP V NP
with a fork
eat
beans

18. Case of conjunction VP V1’ V2’ PP V3’ V4’ Conj and In the afternoon NP
eat
drink
beans
coffee

19. A-bar: adjectives AP A1’ AP A’ A’ (AP) A’ A’ A (PP) A2’ AP A3’ A5’
Conj
and
Very
A6’
A4’ AP AP
green
blue
bright
dull

20. So-replacement for adjectives
Ram is very serious about studies , but less so than Shyam

21. P-bar: prepositions AP A1’ PP P’ P’ P’ (PP) P1’ P’ P (NP) PP AP P2’
Conj
and
right NP NP P P
into
off
the trash
the table

22. So-replacement for Prepositions
Ram is utterly in debt, but Shyam is only partly so.

23. Complements and Adjuncts or Arguments and Adjuncts

24. Rules in bar notation: Noun
NP (D) N’
N’ (AP) N’
N’ N’ (PP)
N’ N (PP)

25. Rules in bar notation: Verb
VP V’
V’ V’ (PP)
V’ V (NP)

26. Rules in bar notation: Adjective
AP A’
A’ (AP) A’
A’ A (PP)

27. Rules in bar notation: Preposition
PP P’
P’ P’ (PP)
P’ P (NP)

28. Introducing the “X factor”
Let X stand for any category N, V, A, P
Let XP stand for NP, VP, AP and PP
Let X’ stand for N’, V’, A’ and P’

29. XP to X’ Collect the first level rules And produce NP (D) N’ VP V’
AP A’
PP P’
And produce
XP (YP) X’

30. X’ to X’ Collect the 2nd level rules And produce
N’ (AP) N’ or N’ (PP)
V’ V’ (PP)
A’ (AP) A’
P’ P’ (PP)
And produce
X’ (ZP) X’ or X (ZP)

31. X’ to X Collect the 3rd level rules And produce N’ N (PP) V’ V (NP)
A’ A (PP)
P’ P (NP)
And produce
X’ X (WP)

32. Basic observations about X and X’
X’ X (WP)
X’ X’ (ZP)
X is called Head
Phrases must have Heads: Headedness property
Category of XP and X must match: Endocentricity

33. Basic observations about X and X’
X’ X (WP)
X’ X’ (ZP)
Sisters of X are complements
Roughly correspond to objects
Sisters of X’ are Adjuncts
PPs and Adjectives are typical adjuncts
We have adjunct rules and complement rules

34. Structural difference between complements and adjunctsXP X’ ZP X’
Adjunct WP X
Complement

35. Complements and Adjuncts in NPsZP N’ PP
with red cover N
book
of poems

36. Any number of Adjuncts NP N’ N’ ZP from Oxford Press N’ PP
with red cover N
book
of poems