2. Child Development Principles and Theories4
Child Development Principles and Theories

3. Key Concepts
The main areas of child development are physical, cognitive, and social-emotional.
Early brain development has a lasting effect on a child’s development.
Learning about child development theories can help teachers better understand young children.

4. Objectives Describe the areas and principles of development.
Define windows of opportunity as related to brain development.
Explain the historical influences on educating young children.
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5. Objectives
Summarize how theories about development can be used as practical guides to early care and education.
Contrast the developmental theories of Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gardner.

6. Child Development
Development refers to change and growth that occurs in children
Infants
Toddlers
Preschoolers

7. Areas of Development Physical development includes
gross-motor development
fine-motor development
Cognitive development or intellectual development
Social-emotional development is
social—learning to relate to others
emotional—feelings and expression of feelings

8. Principles of Development
Principles of growth and development are universal, predictable, and orderly
Cephalocaudal principle is
development from the head downward
Proximodistal principle is
development from center of the body outward
Maturation
depends on sequence of biological changes

9. Brain Development Depends on both heredity and environment Neurons
Nerve cells present at birth, but not linked
Synapses
The links between neurons after birth
More synapses = more messages to brain
Result from the child’s interaction with the world
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10. Brain Development Synapses influence the ability of the child to
learn
solve problems
get along with others
control emotions
Caregivers provide sensory stimulation
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11. Brain Development
Plasticity is the ability of an infant’s brain to change according to stimulation
Early care has long-lasting impact on how children develop
Positive nurturing is better
Stress from overstimulation
produces cortisol
causes emotional problems

12. Discuss
Identify a case from your experience or the news about a child who is being neglected. How might this lack of nurturing hurt the child?

13. Windows of Opportunity
Parts of the brain develop at different times
Windows of opportunity are key time periods for normal development of certain skill types
Appropriate stimulation needed for synapse links
After key time periods, learning links are diminished
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14. Discuss
What might be done to alleviate some of the risk factors for healthy brain development?
Why is good nutrition important to brain development?

15. Windows of Opportunity
Vision: birth to six months
Vocabulary/speech: birth to 3 years
Emotional control: birth to 3 years
Math/logic development: 1 to 4 years
Motor development: prenatal to 8 years

16. Historical Influences on Early Child Care and Education
Focused on religious and moral education
1800s
Influenced by industrial revolution
Basic academics taught, but few received formal schooling until end of century
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17. Historical Influences on Early Child Care and Education
Influenced by scientific revolution
Childhood education advanced and made a priority

18. Historical Influences on Educating Children
John Locke (1632): father of educational philosophy
Friedrich Froebel (1837): opened first kindergarten in Germany
Elizabeth Peabody (1860): opened first English-speaking kindergarten in Boston
John Dewey (1896): opened a laboratory school supporting child-centered approach
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19. Historical Influences on Educating Children
Arnold Gesell (1900s): developed age-related norms, or developmental milestones
Maria Montessori (1907): stressed teaching practical life tasks; the Montessori approach
Patty Smith Hill (1926): founded National Association for the Education of Young Children

20. Theories of Development
A theory is a principle or idea proposed, researched, and generally accepted as an explanation
Four major theories about how children learn
Erik Erikson
Jean Piaget
Lev Vygotsky
Howard Gardner

21. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erikson believed development occurs throughout the life span
Emphasizes the social and emotional aspects of childhood growth
Eight developmental stages with a social conflict or crisis at each stage
Conflicts must be resolved before proceeding
Maturity and social forces resolve the conflicts
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22. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
First four stages occur between birth and age 12
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Industry versus inferiority

23. Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust
During first 18 months, to develop trust, children need
warm, consistent, predictable, attentive care
caregivers who read and respond to signals
loving physical contact, nourishment, cleanliness, and warmth
Mistrust occurs if an infant experiences an unpredictable world and is handled harshly

24. Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Between 18 months and age 3, toddlers want to be independent
To gain self-control without losing self-esteem, children need
clear and consistent limits
loving and supportive environments
Overprotection or lack of activities can result in self-doubt, poor achievement, and shame

25. Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt
Between ages 3 and 5, children learn to take initiative without hurting others
Children realize
what they do affects others
they need a sense of purpose
criticism is discouraging

26. Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority
Between ages 6 and 12, children learn society’s expectations
They gain approval by developing intellectual skills such as reading, writing, and math
Children need
realistic goals and expectations
encouragement and less parental control

27. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Piaget believed that
thinking is different during each stage of development
children naturally attempt to understand what they do not know
knowledge is gathered gradually during active involvement in real-life experiences
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28. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Schemata are mental representations or concepts
Adaptation is mentally organizing what is perceived in the environment; can occur by
assimilation: taking in new information and adding it to what is already known
accommodation: adjusting what is already known to fit the new information

29. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Sensorimotor stage: between birth to age 2
Infants use all their senses to explore and learn
Learn object permanence: objects still exist when out of sight
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30. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Preoperational stage: between ages 2 to 7
Children are very egocentric; they assume others see the world as they do
Language, symbolic play, and drawing skills are learned
Thinking is still illogical
Learn conservation: size and volume relationship
Learn how to classify objects and groups
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31. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Concrete operations stage: ages 7 to 11
Children develop capacity to think systematically when referring to actual objects
Begin to internalize tasks
Become capable of reversing operations
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32. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Formal operations stage: from 11 years to adulthood
During this stage, children
develop capacity to think in purely abstract ways
no longer need concrete examples
develop problem-solving and reasoning skills

33. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky believed children learn through
social and cultural experiences
interactions with family and peers
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34. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Language is an important tool for thought; plays a key role in cognitive development
Coined the term private speech for self-talk, or when children “think out loud”
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) concept of learning as a scale
Middle of scale is the zone of tasks within a child’s current developmental level

35. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Multiple intelligences are the different kinds of intelligences used by the brain
Intelligence is result of complex interactions between children’s heredity and experiences
Each intelligence functions separately, but all are closely linked
Learning is best achieved using a child’s strongest intelligence
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36. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
Ability to control body movements
Process knowledge through sensation
Enjoy sports, dance, or creative drama
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37. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Musical-rhythmic intelligence
Ability to recognize musical patterns and produce and appreciate music
One of the earliest intelligences to emerge
Can discriminate tone, pitch, and rhythmic patterns
Composers, musicians, singers
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38. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Logical-mathematical intelligence
More than just the ability to use math
Ability to explore categories, patterns, and other relationships
Apply cause and effect and predict patterns
Math experts, scientists, composers
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39. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Verbal-linguistic intelligence
Ability to use language for expression
Sensitivity to the meaning, sound, and rhythm of words
Lawyers, poets, public speakers, language translators
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40. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Interpersonal intelligence
Excellent communication and social skills
Understand the feelings, behaviors, and motives of others
Make friends easily
Offer support and empathy
Teachers, politicians, salespeople, service professionals
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41. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Intrapersonal intelligence
Understand the inner self; self-awareness
Know your own skills, limits, feelings
Psychologists, social workers, religious leaders, counselors
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42. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Visual-spatial intelligence
Use of vision to develop mental images
Preference for pictures and images
See the spatial relationship of objects
Photographers, artists, architects, engineers, surgeons
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43. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Naturalistic intelligence
Developed from the need to survive
Ability to classify objects in nature, such as animals and plants
Distinguish among types and brands of objects
Sailors, gardeners, chefs, farmers

44. Making the Pieces Fit
The brain affects all aspects of growth and development
Development generally progresses in a similar way for all children
Each theory of development offers insight into how children develop
Children learn best in a caring environment with many opportunities for learning

45. Discuss
Do you believe there is a connection between child and adult behavior based on the theories presented in this chapter?

46. Review Name the three main areas of child development.
What is the difference between gross-motor and fine-motor development?
True or false. Neurons are connected by synapses.
How are Gardner’s multiple intelligences related?

47. Glossary
cephalocaudal principle. Principle of development stating that development tends to proceed from the head downward. According to this principle, the child first gains control of the head, then the arms, then the legs. 47

48. Glossary
cognitive development. Growth in the mental processes used to gain knowledge, such as thought, reasoning, and imagination.
concrete operations. The use of logic based on what has been experienced or seen. 48

49. Glossary
development. Change or growth in a human being. Development is usually measured in terms of physical, intellectual, social, and emotional growth. 49

50. Glossary
fine-motor development. The ability to coordinate the small muscles in the arms, fingers, and wrists to complete tasks such as grasping, holding, cutting, drawing, and writing.

51. Glossary
gross-motor development. Improvement of the skills involving arms, legs, and whole body movements. Examples include running, jumping, throwing, and climbing.
infant. Term used to refer to a child from birth through the first year of life.
maturation. Sequence of biological changes in a child giving the child new abilities. 51

52. Glossary
multiple intelligences. Theory developed by Howard Gardner that emphasizes different kinds of intelligences used by the human brain. Each intelligence functions separately, but all are closely linked. According to Gardner, a potential intelligence will not develop unless it is nurtured. 52

53. Glossary neurons. Specialized nerve cells.
physical development. Physical body changes in a growing individual, such as changes in bone thickness, size, weight, vision, and coordination.

54. Glossary
preoperational stage. Period between ages two and seven during which children learn to classify groups and use symbols and internal images.
preschooler. Term referring to children ages three to six years.

55. Glossary
proximodistal principle. Principle noting that development of the body occurs in an outward direction. The spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body; arms develop before hands; hands develop before fingers.

56. Glossary schemata. Mental representations or concepts.
sensorimotor stage. Period between birth and two years of age during which infants use all their senses to explore and learn.

57. Glossary
social-emotional development. Growth in the two related areas of social and emotional skills. Social development involves learning to relate to others. Emotional development involves refining feelings and expressions of feelings.

58. Glossary
synapses. Connections between nerve cells that pass messages in the brain.
theory. A principle or idea that is proposed, researched, and generally accepted as an explanation.

59. Glossary
toddler. Term used to refer to a child from the first year until the third birthday. The term is used because of the awkward walking style of children in this age group.
windows of opportunity. Specific spans of time for the normal development of certain skills.