1. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Sentence Structure
COG = A series of teeth on the edge of a wheel, that fit between those of a similar wheel so that each wheel can cause the other to turn.
SPINDLE = A bar (e.g. an axle) which turns or on which something else turns.
NOTE: this is only an introduction to the topic of sentence structure. You can get further help by:
Consulting a good grammar text or book on writing
Accessing the resources on the ELS Web Site
Visiting the Skillzone
An Introduction to Clause Analysis
ENGLISH & LEARNING SKILLS
UEL: English & Learning Skills

2. The Mechanics of Paragraphs, Sentences & Punctuation
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
The Mechanics of Paragraphs, Sentences & Punctuation
If we can describe paragraphs as the motor / engine of academic writing, that is the driving force behind arguments, then sentences are the moving cogs and spindles within the engine, and punctuation marks are the nuts and bolts that hold all the machinery in place.
(NB: ideas would then represent the fuel powering the motor)
PARAGRAPHS = ENGINE
SENTENCES = COGS & SPINDLES
PUNCTUATION = NUTS & BOLTS
IDEAS = FUEL
What we’re going to be focusing on in this presentation are the cogs and spindles of academic texts, that is, the sentences that compose paragraphs.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

3. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
3 Elements of Sentences
Individual Words (Parts of Speech)
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, subordinators
Groups of Words
Clauses (main, dependent, relative), phrases
Punctuation
Commas, colons, hyphens, question marks, full-stops
Part of this presentation will touch on individual words, but most of it will be concerned with groups of words, the various types of clauses and phrases that make up sentences.
This presentation will also consider the punctuation of sentences.
It will range from simple sentence construction to more complex structures.
To start with we're going to consider a quite demanding sentence (Task 2)
[NB Students who feel that unpacking this sentence in terms of the clauses, conjunctions, phrases and so forth of which it is composed need not stay for the remainder of the presentation. It is doubtful whether many students will in fact be able to complete this task satisfactorily.]
UEL: English & Learning Skills

4. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Text 1
Freud was born in He was born in Austria. He attended the Sperl Gymnasium. He graduated in He turned to medicine as a career. At the University of Vienna he worked with Ernst von Brucke. He trained with the psychiatrist Theodor Maynert. He was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in In 1938 he was forced into exile.
This is a series of simple sentences. Grammatically they are fine, but the text lacks variety and interest. It is not a very attractive or stylish text – it’s just a series of factual statements.
Very jerky.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

5. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Simple Sentences
He (subject) studied (verb) hard.
We (subject) went (verb) to the Skillzone.
Simple sentences:
Start with a capital letter & end with a full stop.
Contain a subject & a verb.
WHAT’S THE PROBLEM WITH TEXT 1?
The entire text is a string of simple sentences. Grammatically they are fine, but the text lacks variety and interest. It is not a very thoughtful text – it’s just a series of factual statements.
Very jerky.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

6. Problems with Simple Sentences
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Problems with Simple Sentences
BORING
REPETITIVE
RESTRICTIVE – BASED ON FACTS
Text 1 is made up entirely of independent main clauses that is, simple sentences. Clearly, if all writing consisted of sentences like these, it would be easy to compose.
But:
Imagine an entire essay or report written in such a way.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

7. Uses of the Simple Sentence
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Uses of the Simple Sentence
Instructions
Reports: procedures / methods
Simple sentences figure largely in instructions or reports of procedures or processes.
They are particularly useful, for example, when describing the different stages in an experiment being written up in the METHODS section of a lab report, because:
They are clear
They are easy to understand
But, while useful, their use is quite restricted.
Inc. a passage from the methods section of a Psychology paper/report here.
BECAUSE:
They are clear
They are easy to understand
UEL: English & Learning Skills

8. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Text 2
Freud was born in 1856 and attended the Sperl Gymnasium and graduated in 1873 then turned to medicine as a career, so he went to the University of Vienna and worked with Ernst von Brucke and trained with the psychiatrist Theodor Maynert and was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in 1885, but was forced into exile in 1938.
Ask the students what the difference is between Text 1 and Text 2.
This short text is a string of simple sentences joined together by coordinating conjunctions (words like and, or, but, and then).
Are there any problems with this text?
Yes, it contains too many conjunctions.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

9. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Compound Sentences
Simple sentences joined together by coordinating conjunctions
and, or, but, and then.
Simplistic
Monotonous
In order to make what we write more interesting, thoughtful and varied we learn to add extra information to simple sentences, thus forming what are known as COMPOUND SENTENCES.
BUT,
COMPOUND SENTENCES are very simplistic and can be monotonous to read or listen to.
NB Other common coordinating conjunctions are:
‘nor’, ‘yet’
UEL: English & Learning Skills

10. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Options
Use no more than one or two co-ordinating conjunctions in a compound sentence.
Freud was born in 1856 and attended the Sperl Gymnasium.
In order to salvage something from the compound sentence, use conjunctions sparingly or use the semi-colon.
Join compound sentences using semi-colons.
Freud was an educated man; he studied medicine.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

11. The “Complex” Solution
Use ‘COMPLEX’ SENTENCES
Compress several sentences into one.
WEIGHTY
CONSIDERED
SOPHISTICATED & INTERESTING

12. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Text 3: Example 1
He attended the Sperl Gymnasium and graduated in 1873, subsequently turning to medicine as a career.
Refer the students to Text 3 on the Handout
Here the sentence appears to be in two halves separated by a comma.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

13. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Example 1 Examined
Clause 1 – expresses main statement
He attended the Sperl Gymnasium and graduated in 1873
Clause 2 – adds information
subsequently turning to medicine as a career
In the example:
‘He attended the Sperl Gymnasium and graduated in 1873’ = main clause
‘subsequently turning to medicine as a career’ = subordinate clause
Ask the students what’s different about these two clauses:
What’s want is recognition of the fact that the main clause can stand alone, it’s independent, but the subordinate clause adds information but cannot stand alone. It depends upon the main clause.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

14. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Text 3: Example 2
After he began training with the psychiatrist Theodor Maynert, Freud was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in 1885.
Refer the students to Text 3 on the Handout
Here the sentence appears to be in two halves separated by a comma.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

15. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Example 2 Examined
Main clause – expresses main statement
Freud was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in 1885.
Subordinate Clause – adds information
After he began training with the psychiatrist Theodor Maynert,
Main clause – expresses main statement
Freud was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in 1885.
NB: Notice that this sentence is complete. (See if the students can identify this.)
Subordinate Clause – adds information
After he began training with the psychiatrist Theodor Maynert,
NB: Notice that this is an incomplete sentence. (See if the students can identify this.)
UEL: English & Learning Skills

16. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
What is a Main Clause?
A group of words that conveys the main idea of a sentence.
always has a subject;
always has a main verb.
Freud went to the University of Vienna.
He worked with Ernst von Brucke.
Main verb means a FINITE verb.
This means a verb that is not:
A participle ending in –ing or –en
Or a ‘to infinitive’
UEL: English & Learning Skills

17. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Subordinate Clauses
Also have a subject
Also have a main verb
But
Are always INTRODUCED by a word like:
‘although’, ‘because’, ‘when’
Like an independent clause, a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb. But, unlike an independent clause, a dependent clause cannot stand on its own because it begins with a part of speech known as a subordinator.
A subordinator always makes the thought that follows it incomplete. Some common subordinators are "although," "as soon as," "because," "if,","since," "so that," "that," "unless," "until,“ “but,” “when,” and "whenever.“
Any complete thought (or independent clause) can be made into a dependent clause by beginning it with a subordinator. For instance, if you place the subordinator as soon as in front of the following complete thought,
She finished her exams on Thursday.
the sentence becomes a dependent clause:
As soon as she finished her exams on Thursday, ...
Remove the subordinator from any dependent clause, and the dependent clause becomes an independent clause, or complete thought.
‘Although’, ‘but’ and ‘when’ are also known as SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

18. Note: Co-ordinate Clauses
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Note: Co-ordinate Clauses
Sometimes sentences have more than one clause of equal importance:
Freud attended the Sperl Gymnasium and graduated in 1873.
He was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in 1885, but was forced into exile in 1938.
Both parts of each sentence are of equal importance.
Here the words ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘but’ are important – both clauses in each part of the sentence are of the same value.
Both main clauses and subordinate clauses can be co-ordinate.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

19. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Caution!
Main clauses can stand alone as fully functioning sentences.
Subordinate clauses depend for their sense on the main clause. They do not make sense by themselves because they are incomplete.
So remember . . .
Main clauses can stand alone as fully functioning sentences.
Subordinate clauses depend for their sense on the main clause. They do not make sense by themselves because they are incomplete.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

20. Subordinate Clause – INCOMPLETE
Main clause – COMPLETE
Freud was appointed lecturer in neuro-pathology in 1885.
Subordinate Clause – INCOMPLETE
After he began training with the psychiatrist Theodor Maynert,

21. Subordinate Conjunctions
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Subordinate Conjunctions
although while which
since despite unless
even though subsequently
if because where
until
Subordinate clauses can be introduced using a variety of terms
UEL: English & Learning Skills

22. Functions of Subordinate Clauses
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Functions of Subordinate Clauses
WHEN events happened
WHY / REASON
HOW
WHAT concessions are being made
WHAT limits are being set
WHAT conditions are being imposed
Refer to Handout:
WHEN events happened
After Freud graduated he turned to medicine.
WHY
Freud turned to medicine because he wanted to help people.
HOW
Freud behaved towards Wilhelm Fliess as if he were a brother.
WHAT concessions are being made
Freud respected Maynert, although he disagreed with him.
WHAT limits are being set
Freud lived in Austria until he was forced to flee.
WHAT conditions are being imposed
Freud threatened to give up his studies unless Martha Bernays agreed to marry him.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

23. Punctuating Complex Sentences
Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Punctuating Complex Sentences
The comma is the stop used between main and independent clauses – it’s not always needed, but sometimes it’s crucial.
Basic complex sentences have one independent main clause and one dependent or subordinate clause.
Introduce comma splices, run on sentences . . .
UEL: English & Learning Skills

24. Examples Freud had a daughter, who was a psychotherapist.
(He only had ONE daughter.)
Freud had a daughter who was a psychotherapist.
(He had MORE than one daughter.)

25. All the students who were in the Great Hall at the time were discussing Freud.
(ONLY the students in the Great Hall were doing this, but there were other students.)
All the students, who were in the Great Hall at the time, were discussing Freud.
(There were no other students apart from those in the Great Hall.)

26. However we may feel, Freud’s a scientist rather than a humanist.
(ie it doesn’t matter whether we feel he’s right or wrong.)
However, we may feel Freud’s a scientist rather than a humanist.
(ie on the other hand.)

27. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Relative Clauses
Defining Relative Clauses
The gales which swept across Britain last night caused widespread damage.
The pipeline which carries the town’s water supplies has been severed.
The gales which swept across Britain last night caused widespread damage.
i.e.: There have been other gales.
The pipeline which carries the town’s water supplies has been severed.
i.e.: There are other pipelines.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

28. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Relative Clauses
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
The gales, which swept across Britain last night, caused widespread damage.
The pipeline, which carries the town’s water supplies, has been severed.
The gales, which swept across Britain last night, caused widespread damage.
i.e.: Only referring to one series of gales.
The pipeline, which carries the town’s water supplies, has been severed.
i.e.: Only referring to one pipeline.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

29. Extended Nouns Sometimes a whole clause can function as a noun.
In this sense it is an “extended Noun”.

30. Complex Complex Sentences
Complex sentences can consist of a main clause and several subordinate clauses which may cut across each other.

31. Text 4
Even though he was a famous psychiatrist and loved his children, Freud got cross with Anna because she had eaten all the cakes which Martha had made while he had been busy writing The Interpretation of Dreams.

32. Analysing Text 4 Freud was cross with Anna – Main Clause
Even though he was a famous psychiatrist – Sub Cl
who loved his children – Sub Cl
because she had eaten all the cakes – Sub Cl
which Martha had made – Sub Cl
while he had been busy writing The Interpretation of Dreams – Sub Cl

33. Write Better Sentences: Introduction to Clause Analysis
19/04/2017
Shifting the Emphasis
Freud, who was a famous psychiatrist and loved his children, was busy writing The Interpretation of Dreams while Anna was eating all the cakes which Martha had made for him.
Here we are choosing to focus on the fact that Freud was writing The Interpretation of Dreams, whereas in the previous text the emphasis was on the fact that Freud got cross with Anna.
UEL: English & Learning Skills

34. Foregrounding
Identifying the main clause in a sentence helps you to understand a writer’s personal view or slant on what he or she has written.

35. The Phrase
Sentences may also contain PHRASES – these are not clauses. They:
can be a single word – ‘however’, ‘recently’;
several words – ‘on the other hand’; ‘on a good day’ . . .
can include verbs, but only ending with:
-ing / -ed / -en / -nt